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• 


PROCEEDINGS 


of  the 


First  Short  Course  on  Fire  Prevention, 
Control  and  Extinguishment 


University  of  Illinois 
June  16,  17,  18,  19,  1925 


[Printed  by  authority  of  the   State  of  Illinois.] 


t       >  '  >    1 " 


m  » 


PROCEEDINGS 


of  the 


First  Short  Course  on  Fire  Prevention 
Control  and  Extinguishment 


University  of  Illinois 
June  16,  17,  18,  19,  1925 


[Printed  by  authority   of  the    State   of   Illinois.] 


L.  C. 


Schnepp  &  Barnes,  Printers 

Springfield,  III. 

1925 


35443—600 


Ill 


INTRODUCTION 


The  Short  Course  in  Fire  Prevention,  Control  and  Extinguish- 
ment, given  at  the  University  of  Illinois  June  16-19,  1925,  was  the 
first  of  its  kind  given  in  the  United  States. 

The  idea  of  utilizing  the  resources  of  the  state  university  for 
a  short  course  of  practical  instruction  for  fire  chiefs,  firemen  and 
local  officials  had  its  origin  in  an  address  by  State  Fire  Marshal 
John  G.  Gamber  before  the  Illinois  Firemen's  association  at  their 
convention  in  Rockford  in  1922.  The  idea  was  nursed  along  until 
1925,  when,  at  the  Murphysboro  convention  of  the  association,  a 
resolution  was  adopted,  calling  upon  officers  of  the  association  to 
take  the  matter  up  definitely  with  the  university. 

The  proposition  was  taken  up  with  President  David  Kinley 
and  met  with  spontaneous  approval.  By  his  direction,  M.  S.  Ket- 
chum,  dean  of  the  college  of  engineering,  appointed  a  committee 
to  report  on  the  feasibility  of  giving  the  course  and  submit  an  out- 
line. This  committee  consisted  of  Professors  L.  H.  Provine,  chair- 
man ;  M.  L.  Enger,  A.  R.  Knight  and  J.  A.  Poison.  This  committee 
developed  the  course,  with  Professor  C.  E.  Palmer  as  director  of 
the  course. 

The  course  was  given  under  joint  sponsorship  of  the  univer- 
sity, the  state  fire  marshal  and  the  Illinois  Firemen's  association. 
Officers  and  members  of  the  executive  committee  of  the  last  named 
organization  are:  President,  Pearl  Smith,  Madison  ;  vice-president, 
Thomas  J.  Ruddy.  Joliet ;  secretary,  Roy  \Y.  Alsip,  Champaign; 
treasurer,  Fred  E.  Danner,  Mt.  Pulaski  ;  historian,  Elmer  W.  AVeid- 
ler,  Mt.  Olive  ;  executive  board,  August  W.  Thode,  Galena ;  Simon 
Kellerman,  Jr.,  Edwardsville  ;  Albert  Herring,  Murphysboro  ;  Al- 
bert Hasse,  Peru ;  Otto  Reiche,  Naperville ;  W.  Campbell,  Ke- 
wanee  ;  Fred  P.  Haderlein.  Carlyle  ;  Samuel  C.  Hunt,  Jacksonville  ; 
Leo  Connole,  Venice. 

The  total  registration  for  the  course  was  219,  which  was  much 
larger  than  was  expected  for  the  first  course.  Xinety-five  were 
present  at  the  last  meeting  of  the  last  session. 

Idle  total  number  of  counties  represented  was  37.  Seventy  cit- 
ies and  towns  were  represented,  of  which  6-3  were  Illinois  communi- 
ties. The  other  seven  were  Cincinnati,  Ohio;  Indianapolis,  Indi- 
ana; Kansas  City,  Missouri;  Michigan  City,  Indiana;  Newton 
Falls,  Massachusetts,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania;  and  St.  Louis, 
Missouri. 

llie  occupational  distribution  of  those  attending  was  : 

1.  Fire  chiefs  and  assistant  chiefs 59 

2.  Fire  captains  and  lieutenants 8 

3.  State  fire  officers    and    organization    offi- 

cials          4 


533359 


IV 


4.  Firemen    84 

5.  City  Officials    1 :; 

6.  Public   service  and   industrial   representa- 

tives          II 

7.  Underwriters'  Laboratories,  actuarial  bu- 

reaus, etc ]  0 

8.  Inspectors    6 

9.  Fire  extinguishment    and    safety    equip- 

ment          12 

10.     Miscellaneous  —  committee,      instructors, 

etc 11 


Total    219 

As  will  be  noted  from  the  foregoing,  the  course  was  thrown 
open  not  only  to  firemen  and  city  officials,  but  also  to  any  indus- 
trial concerns  or  others  who  might  be  interested  in  the  fire  problem. 

The  success  of  the  course  was  assured  the  first  day.  A  reso- 
lution was  adopted  unanimously  during  the  course,  asking  that  the 
course  be  made  an  annual  event  and  plans  are  now  underway  for 
a  larger  and  better  course  in  1926. 


VI 


Yll 


STATEMENT    FROM    GOVERNOR   LEN    SMALL 
Read  at  Opening  of  Short  Course,  Tuesday,  June  16 


I  wish  it  were  possible  for  me  to  he  present  in  person  at  the 
opening  of  this  short  course.  The  closing  hours  of  the  General 
Assembly  necessarily  keep  me  at  my  desk  in  Springfield,  but  1  do 
not  wish  to  let  the  opportunity  pass  of  expressing  my  personal  in- 
terest in  this  undertaking  and  my  hope  and  belief  that  it  will  bring 
far-reaching  benefits  to  our  State  in  the  matter  of  fire  control. 

Our  tremendous  fire  waste,  both  in  human  life  and  property, 
is  a  blight  on  the  prosperity  and  happiness  of  our  people.  If  we 
are  to  check  this  waste,  and  reduce  it,  we  must  adopt  a  practical, 
effective  means  to  that  end.  The  fire  loss  of  the  State  is  simply 
the  sum  total  of  the  losses  in  the  hundreds  of  communities  of  the 
State.  Any  practical  fire  prevention  program  of  the  State  should, 
therefore,  give  an  important  place  to  providing  some  effective 
method  of  helping  local  communities  to  cut  down  their  losses. 
This,  1  understand,  is  the  thought  back  of  this  short  course. 

I  can  conceive  of  no  greater  service  which  the  State  can  render 
its  communities  in  this  important  field  of  fire  control  than  the 
service  which  this  course  aims  to  render.  The  modern  problem  of 
fire  prevention,  control  and  extinguishment  is  greatly  more  compli- 
cated than  it  was  a  few  years  back  and  will  become  more  so. 
Fire  chiefs  and  firemen  should  have  specialized  information  on  its 
essential  phases.  Very  fewr  of  our  communities  are  in  a  position 
to  provide  this  and  the  State  aims  to  meet  this  need  in  this  course. 

I  commend  the  University  of  Illinois  for  conducting  this 
course.  It  is  the  first  State  University  in  the  United  States  to  apply 
its  facilities  toward  a  practical  solution  of  the  fire  problem.  I  am 
proud  that  Illinois  has  again  blazed  the  Avay. 

I  commend  State  Fire  Marshal  John  G.  Gamber  and  the  Illi- 
nois Firemen's  Association  for  their  respective  parts  in  sponsoring 
the  course  and  cooperating  with  the  University  in  conducting  it. 

The  course  is  founded  on  sound  ideas.  It  ought  to  endure  as 
an  annual  event.  I  trust  that  it  will  do  so  and  that  its  benefits  to 
the  people  of  the  State  will  increase  each  year. 


Vlll 


JOHN    Cr.     GAMBER 

State  Fire  Marshal 


RESOLUTION 

Adopted  Unanimously  at  Session,  June  IS 


Whereas,  We  are  convinced  of  the  great  good  and  practic- 
ability of  the  Short  Course  of  Fire  Prevention,  Control  and  Ex- 
tinguishment; and 

Whereas.  The  Chiefs,  the  Communities  they  represent,  and  the 
Industrial  Interests  have  been  greatly  benefited  ;  therefore,  be  it 

Resolved,  That  it  is  the  unanimous  opinion  of  the  Charter 
Class,  that  this  aforesaid  school  be  continued  from  year  to  year 
that  further  benefits  may  result ;  and  be  it  further 

Resolved,  That  a  sincere  vote  of  thanks  be  tendered  to  Pro- 
fessor L.  H.  Provine,  Professor  C.  E.  Palmer,  Fire  Marshal  John 
Gamber,  Chief  John  Ely,  Assistant  Chief  Roy  Alsip,  members  of  the 
Champaign  Fire  Department,  Officers  and  members  of  the  Executive 
Committee  of  the  Illinois  Firemen's  Association  and  others  whose 
untiring  efforts  have  so  largely  contributed  to  the  success  of  the  course. 


Respectfully  submitted, 


(Signed)      M.  S.  Philip 

Herman  J.  Lohmann 
Samuel  Hunt 
Otto  H.  Reiciie 

Committee. 


XI 


PROGRAM  OF  SHORT  COURSE 

TUESDAY,  JUNE  16. 

Morning.  page 

8:30 — Registration.  22\   Engineering  Hall. 

Chairman    of    Session — C.    E.    Palmer,    Director    of 
Short  Course  and  Assistant  Professor  of  Architec- 
tural Engineering,  University  of  Illinois. 
9  :30 — The  Short  Course  in  Eire  Prevention,  Control  and  Ex- 
tinguishment           2 

A.  N.  Talbot,  Professor  of  Municipal  and  Sanitary 
Engineering,  University  of  Illinois. 

10  :15— The  Work  of  the  State  Eire  Marshal 6 

John  G.  Gamber,  State  Fire  Marshal. 

1 1  :00 — The  Underwriters'   Laboratories 15 

Dana  Pierce,  President. 

Afternoon. 

Chairman    of    Session — John    G.    Gamber,    State    Eire 
Marshal. 
1 :30 — Fire  Prevention  and  Building  Construction 23 

Raymond  T.  Nelson,  Engineer,  The  Western  Actu- 
arial Bureau,  Chicago. 

2  :30— Exit  Facilities   70 

John  Plant,  Chief  Engineer,  Fire  Prevention  Bureau, 
Chicago,  Courtesy  of  Joseph  F.  Connery,  Fire  Com- 
missioner, Chicago. 

3  :30 — Demonstration — Combating  the  Smoke  and  Gas  Hazard     76 

J.    B.    Fleming,    Mine    Safety    Appliance    Company, 
Pittsburgh. 
4:00 — Inspection  of  the  University. 

WEDNESDAY,  JUNE  17. 

Morning. 

Chairman  of  Session — A.  R.  Knight,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  Electrical  Engineering,  University  of 
Illinois. 

8  :30 — Mechanical   Installations 83 

Raymond  T.  Nelson,  Engineer,  Western  Actuarial 
Bureau,  Chicago. 

9  :30 — Electrical    Installations   126 

Victor  H.  Tousley,  Chief  Electrical  Inspector,  De- 
partment of  Gas  and  Electricity,  Chicago. 


Xll 

PAGE 

10:30— Life  Safety 131 

Harry     K.     Rogers,     Engineer,     Western     Actuarial 
Bureau.  Chicago. 

Afternoon. 

Chairman  of  Session — Pearl  Smith,  President  of  Illi- 
nois Firemen's  Association. 
A  few  words  of  welcome  from   Dr.  \Y.   F.   Burres,   Mayor  of 

Urbana    140 

1:30 — Motion  Pictures,  "The  Menace." 

By  the  National  Automatic  Sprinkler  Association. 

Training  the   Fireman 141 

L.  L.  Wolf,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

2  :30 — Hazards  and  Exposures 152 

Benjamin  Richards,  Manager,  Underwriters'  Service 
Association,  Chicago. 

3  :30— Demonstration   of   Resuscitation 1 61 

L.  L.  Wolf,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
8:00 — Motion  Pictures,  "Training  the  Fireman." 
Illinois  Union  Building. 

THURSDAY,  JUNE  18. 

Morning. 

Chairman  of  Session — John  Ely,  Chief  of  the  Cham- 
paign Fire  Department. 

8  :30 — Safeguarding  the   Business  District 166 

J.    J.    Conway,    Superintendent,    The    Underwriters' 
Salvage  Corps,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

9  :30— Fire  Alarm  Systems 179 

F.    A.    Raymond,    Consulting    Engineer,    Gamewell 
Alarm    Company,    Newton    Upper    Falls,    Massa- 
chusetts. 
10:30 — Demonstration — First  Aid    191 

L.  L.  Wolf,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Afternoon. 

Chairman  of  Session — Samuel   C.   Hunt.  Chief  of  the 
Jacksonville  Fire  Department. 

1  :30— First   Aid    Extinguishers 199 

R.   (  ).    Matson,   Assistant    Engineer,    Cases   and   Oils 
Underwriters'  Laboratories. 
Demonstration. 
Tlie  Foamite-Childs  Corporation,  Chicago. 
The  Pyrene  Manufacturing  Company,  Chicago. 
4:00 — Inspection    of    the    Champaign    and    Urbana    Waterworks. 


Xlll 

PAGE 

FRIDAY.  JUNE  19. 

Morning. 

Chairman  of  Session — Roy  Alsip,  Secretary,  Illinois 
Firemen's  Association. 

8  :30 — Modern  Methods  of  Fire  Extinguishment 207 

Harry    K.     Rogers,     Engineer,     Western    Actuarial 
Bureau,  Chicago. 

10  :00 — Care   and    Maintenance   of    Equipment 222 

Harold  F.  Hunter.  Engineer.  Chicago  Board  of  Un- 
derwriters. 
11 :00 — Demonstration — Rescue  Work. 

L.  L.  Wolf,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Afternoon. 

Chairman    of    Session — M.    L.    Enger,    Professor    of 
Mechanics  and  Hydraulics,  University  of  Illinois. 
1 :30 — Waterworks  and  Piping 235 

Clarence      Goldsmith,      Assistant      Chief      Engineer, 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  Chicago. 
■i  :00 — -Demonstration — Raising  Ladders.  Hose  Work. 
L.  L.  Wolf,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 


PROCEEDINGS  OF  SHORT  COURSE 


TUESDAY,  JUNE  16,  MORNING  SESSION 

C.  E.  Palmer,  Assistant  Professor  of  Architectural  Engineering,  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois  and  Director  of  Short  Course,  Chairman 

Chairman  Palmer:  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  American 
public  is  more  or  less  familiar  in  a  general  way  with  the  tremendous 
annual  waste  due  to  fire  ;  that  fire  is  the  greatest  boon  to  civilization 
and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most  dreaded  harsh  enemies  of  civiliza- 
tion. We  are  all  familiar  with  the  fact  that  artificial  heat  produced 
by  means  of  a  regulated  and  controlled  fire  has  been  one  of  the  great- 
est factors  in  the  development  of  modern  civilization,  but,  like  all  of 
man's  blessings,  and  perhaps  in  a  greater  degree  than  any.  fire  in  any 
form  is  almost  pregnant  with  destructive  threat. 

The  annual  fire  waste  has  a  far-reaching  influence  extending  over 
various  fields  of  activities,  including  those  fields  of  building  construc- 
tion, inspection,  insurance  and  maintenance  of  both  public  and  private 
protection.  The  foremost  authorities  agree  that  the  fire  loss  in  the 
United  States  is  out  of  proportion  to  both  invested  capital  and  popu- 
lation as  compared  with  fire  losses  in  European  countries.  Perhaps 
this  is  largely  due  to  that  American  characteristic  which  we  know  as 
taking  a  chance.     If  so,  education  and  improvement  are  possible. 

Statistics  show  that  upwards  of  one-half  of  the  fire  losses  in  this 
country  can  be  classed  as  preventable.  The  magnitude  of  this  problem 
and  the  problems  that  are  connected  with  the  fire  loss  are  probably  not 
grasped  fully  by  the  average  person,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  loss  is 
spread  over  a  large  area,  but  nevertheless  it  is  no  less  important  than 
if  it  occurred  in  a  relatively  small  area. 

We  are  familiar  with  the  fact,  perhaps,  that  can  be  gained  by  a 
review  of  statistics  compiled  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers, which  shows  us  that  the  capital  or  monetary  loss  per  year  is 
sufficient  to  build  three  hard  roads,  of  Illinois  state  specifications, 
reaching  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  ocean,  and  that  the  loss  in 
human  life  each  year  is  about  one-fourth  of  the  total  American  loss 
in  the  world  war.  This  certainly  presents  a  problem  which  deserves 
consideration  by  all  of  us  who  are  interested  in  the  progress  of  civili- 
zation and  the  progress  of  our  own  communities. 

The  movement  to  broadcast  the  importance  of  this  problem  is  not 
a  new  one.  For  many  years  various  organizations  have  been  interested 
in  preparing  facts  and  statistics  for  the  people.  It  was,  therefore,  with 
considerable  pleasure  that  the  University  of  Illinois  accepted  the  oppor- 
tunity to  cooperate  with  the  state  fire  marshal's  office  in  promoting 
this  course  for  fire  prevention,  control  and  extinguishment. 

The  University  of  Illinois  is  a  state  institution,  the  primary  func- 
tion of  which  is  service  to  mankind  and  especially  to  the  commonwealth 
of  Illinois  in  any  field  where  study  and  research  are  operative.  We 
want  your  visit  here  to  be  one  of  pleasure  as  well  as  profit  and  we  will 


welcome  any  suggestion  that  you  have  or  any  advice  that  you  care  to 
give  relative  to  this,  the  first 'meeting  of  the  short  course,  or  for  the 
purpose  of  helping  us  with  future  meetings. 

There  are  a  few  announcements  I  want  to  make  at  this  time.  The 
director  of  athletics,  Mr.  Hurt,  has  agreed  to  open  the  gymnasium  to 
you  people,  that  is.  the  pool  and  shower  baths,  and  towels  will  be  fur- 
nished at  the  regular  towel  window  at  the  right  hand  of  the  front  en- 
trance as  you  go  in. 

The  Illinois  Union  building,  which  is  one  block  to  your  right  as 
you  go  out  of  this  building,  has  offered  its  rooms  for  your  use  while 
here,  either  for  small  committee  meetings  or  the  general  purposes  of 
loaring  and  smoking  and  whatever  else  you  care  to  do. 

I  would  suggest  we  would  all  be  very  much  more  comfortable 
and  very  much  happier,  perhaps,  if  we  would  remove  our  coats.  It  will 
be  perfectly  all  right  if  you  care  to  do  so. 

Doctor  Ketchum.  of  the  college  of  engineering,  has  been  called 
east  on  business,  but  he  has  made  arrangements  with  Doctor  Talbot, 
professor  of  municipal  and  sanitary  engineering,  to  rill  his  place  on 
this  program.  I  take  great  pleasure  in  introducing  Professor  Talbot. 
(Applause.) 

THE  SHORT  COURSE  IX   FIRE  PREVENTION,   CONTROL 
AND  EXTINGUISHMENT 

By  A.  X.  Talbot,  Professor  of  Municipal  and  Sanitary  Engineering. 

University  of  Illinois 

Gentlemen.  I  am  sure  that  Doctor  Ketchum  regretted  very  much 
that  he  could  not  be  here  this  morning,  for  from  the  time  that  this  proj- 
ect was  first  talked  of  he  had  a  great  interest  in  it.  but  he  had  need  to 
be  at  Schenectady,  New  York,  today  to  attend  a  special  meeting  of  re- 
search, which  is  being  participated  in  by  members  of  faculties  of  col- 
leges all  over  the  country. 

One  of  the  functions  of  a  university  is  to  cooperate  in  the  dis- 
semination of  knowledge  to  help  promote  movements  that  tend  to  ad- 
vance the  welfare  of  the  public.  It  is,  therefore,  the  duty,  as  we  think. 
of  the  University  of  Illinois  to  help  on  a  project  such  as  this  and  I 
assure  you  that  the  university  is  much  interested  in  this  series  of 
meeting. 

You  will  all  appreciate,  of  course,  the  great  development  and 
many  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  this  country  in  the  last,  say  a 
half  a  century,  from  what  might  be  called  the  pioneer  days  to  these 
later  days.  I  always  think  the  changes  in  the  railroads  of  the  country 
do  show  something.  The  timber  bridges  and  structures  were  cheap 
buildings,  lacking  the  permanence  that  was  quite  necessary.  If  the 
policy  had  been  to  build  permanent  structures,  very  few  of  these 
railroads  would  have  been  constructed,  but  with  the  railroads  as  built 
came  the  opportunity  for  development  of  the  resources  of  the  country. 
There  was  a  growth  of  the  cities,  increase  in  population,  growth  in  the 
industries   and   later   the   railroads   were  able   to   put    in    second   tracks. 


put  in  ballast  and  permanent  structures,  and  they  have  increased  their 
motive  power  until  today  our  railroads  are  not  excelled  in  quality 
an}  where  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  Cities,  too,  are  grown  up.  The 
changes  there  have  also  been  important.  Cheap  construction  is  being 
replaced  by  better  construction.  Sometimes  the  tires  have  been  of 
advantage. 

I  remember  as  a  boy  being  taken  into  Chicago  just  after  the 
great  Chicago  fire  and  seeing  the  destruction  that  had  been  wrought, 
as  well  as  the  small  shacks  that  were  going  up  everywhere  in  order 
for  business  to  be  carried  on  temporarily.  But,  after  that  came  better 
construction,  good  construction  for  that  time,  although  many  changes 
have  been  made  in  what  we  call  proper  building  construction  in  the  last 
fifty  years. 

Now  this  means  that  there  have  been  great  changes,  changes 
in  point  of  view.  Then  each  man  felt  that  he  should  be  allowed  to  do 
as  he  pleased,  put  up  any  kind  of  a  structure  in  any  way  he  wanted. 
We  have  come  to  recognize  with  fifty  per  cent  or  more  of  our  popula- 
tion in  what  we  call  cities,  there  must  be  something  for  the  common 
good,  there  must  be  regulations  and  requirements,  something  that  will 
protect  the  general  public,  and  a  man  himself  may  not  do  just  as  he 
pleases. 

The  fire  departments  have  made  great  changes  and  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  call  your  attention  to  the  great  improvements  in  equipment,  in 
housing  and  in  matters  that  have  come  about  in  the  last  few  vears. 

I  would  say  with  all  of  these  changes  there  is  an  opportunity  for 
a  course  of  this  kind;  an  opportunity  for  men  to  get  together  for  dis- 
cussion, for  conference,  for  receiving  information,  for  giving  out  views 
and  for  movements  of  various  kinds  for  the  improvement  of  our  cities, 
and  I  believe  that  we  shall  have  excellent  results,  not  only  to  the  in- 
dividual members  who  are  in  attendance  here,  but  to  the  cities  of  the 
state  that  are  sending  their  firemen  and  others  to  this  conference. 

Great  changes  have  been  made  in  building  construction.  There 
is  need  for  study  of  what  requirements  should  be  made,  the  planning 
of  a  building,  the  regulations,  the  requirements,  the  different  materials, 
and  I  presume  I  must  include  in  this  also  a  general  method  of  city 
planning:  how  cities  should  be  laid  out  in  the  beginning.  That's  easy 
to  say.  but  what  changes  should  be  made  in  our  cities  to  reduce  the  fire 
hazard  as  well  as  to  give  better  access  in  the  different  parts  of  the  city? 

One  of  the  features  of  your  work  is  that  of  fire  extinguishment. 
I  remember  very  well  when  that  important  paper  on  hydraulics  was 
presented  by  John  R.  Freeman  at  a  meeting  of  the  American  Society 
of  Civil  Engineers  some  thirty-five  years  ago.  It  was  an  epoch  mak- 
ing paper  in  that  respect.  The  friction  through  fire  hose  was  the  effect 
of  different  kinds  of  nozzles  and  different  kinds  of  clay  pipes,  the  re- 
lation of  water  discharged  by  a  ringed  nozzle  and  a  smooth  nozzle, 
the  flow,  distance  and  height  that  this  would  be  thrown  ;  it  was  a  very 
excellent  paper.  \\  nen  I  think  of  that  paper  I  am  reminded  of  an 
incident  that  occurred  in  a  nearby  town  some  twenty-five  years  ago, 
when  the  fire  department  to  throw  water  on  a  little  church  laid  some- 
thing like  1,500  feet  of  hose  to  the  nearest  hydrant  and  naturally  with 


the  lire  pressure  in  the  mains  given  by  the  city  water  works  there  was 
not  a  very  strong  stream,  and  there  was  some  discussion.  Some 
thought  that  the  water  works  company  was  derelict  in  its  duty  in 
not  being  able  to  furnish  water  under  pressure  to  throw  sufficient 
water  to  save  this  building.  When  a  suggestion  was  made  to  one  of 
these  firemen — this  was.  of  course,  a  volunteer  fire  department — 
that  the  line  of  hose  was  so  long  that  they  could  not  expect  to  get 
pressure  at  the  nozzle,  the  reply  was  made  that  that  was  not  true, 
that  the  chairman  of  the  fire  and  water  committee  had  told  him  if  they 
only  had  the  pressure  in  that  hydrant  it  had  to  come  out  at  the  nozzle, 
there  was  no  other  place  it  could  go.  I  am  citing  this  as  one  of  the 
things  that  ought  to  come  in  the  future  in  giving  more  attention  to  the 
members  of  the  fire  department  so  that  they  will  have  some  compre- 
hension of  the  hydraulics  of  the  fire  streams  as  well  as  many  of  these 
other  things  that  will  be  taken  up. 

I  think  then  it  is  plain  that  this  course  should  be  of  advantage 
to  the  members  who  come  and  to  the  state,  and  I  hope  that  it  will 
prove  so  and  that  it  will  be  only  the  beginning  of  a  series  of  short 
courses  and  conferences  that  will  materially  aid  the  work  of  the  fire- 
man of  the  state. 

Now,  if  I  may  say  just  a  few  words  concerning  the  university. 
Many  of  these  things  are  known  to  you.  The  university  has,  includ- 
ing departments  at  Chicago,  registered  this  year  something  over  12,000 
students.  Of  those  over  10,000  have  been  on  the  campus  here,  the  re- 
mainder, those  in  medicine,  pharmacy  and  dentistry,  being  in  Chicago. 
There  were  given  out  in  degrees  yesterday  something  over  1.400  in  all 
departments,  and  with  those  in  Chicago  something  over  1,800  degrees 
conferred  at  this  commencement.  The  college  of  engineering  has  some- 
thing over  1,400  students  and  there  are  ten  or  more  courses  of  study, 
meaning  by  that  groups  of  courses  in  which  a  man  pursues  a  specialty 
ending  in  a  degree  of  a  certain  kind ;  a  course  made  up  of  a  great 
variety  of  special  courses.  I  may  name  some  of  them:  architecture, 
architectural  engineering,  ceramic  engineering,  civil  engineering,  elec- 
trical engineering,  mechanical  engineering,  municipal  and  sanitary  engi- 
neering, general  engineering,  railway  mechanical  engineering,  railway 
civil  engineering,  railway  electrical  engineering,  and,  of  course,  in  mu- 
nicipal sanitary  engineering  there  will  be  included  a  variety  of  engineer- 
ing subjects  such  as  sewerage  treatment,  water  works  and  water  puri- 
fication. In  addition  to  the  structural  work,  which  of  course  is  the 
main  feature  of  the  work  of  the  university,  a  considerable  amount  of 
research  is  carried  on  and  we  have  what  is  called  the  engineering  ex- 
perimental station.  In  my  own  work  I  have  to  do  with  concrete,  rein- 
forced concrete,  the  properties  of  this  and  the  method  of  design  or 
method  of  making  the  concrete  to  give  it  strength. 

We  have  the  hydraulic  laboratory  where  the  flow  of  water  through 
pipes,  through  hose  and  through  nozzles  is  determined;  where  there 
are  methods  of  measuring  water  and  water  power.  Just  in  this  next 
building  we  have  a  strip  of  cast  iron  water  pipe  which  has  been  laid 
to  the  north  for  something  like  250  feet  and  then  back  again.  The 
lower  pipe   is  cement   lined   pipe  and  the  upper  one  is  pipe  which   is 


coated  with  the  ordinary  coating,  the  purpose  of  this  test  being  to 
determine  how  much  difference  there  is  in  the  loss,  how  much  differ- 
ence there  is  in  friction,  in  the  two  kinds  of  coating.  That  is  a  test 
which  is  being  carried  on  and  is  being  made  for  a  manufacturer  of 
cast  iron  pipe  in  Birmingham,  Alabama. 

We  have  tests  on  various  kinds  of  building  material,  on  steel, 
iron,  etc.,  and  there  is  another  building  where  they  test  the  fatigue 
of  metal,  where  a  pipe  is  bent,  a  piece  of  steel  is  bent  in  the  opposite 
directions  within  the  stresses.  We  would  like  to  determine  them  and 
that  is  repeated,  going  on  for  days  and  weeks  and  months,  sometimes 
way  up  into  the  millions  of  applications.  We  find  what  stress  will  be 
necessary  before  material  of  certain  kinds  will  break.  Then  we  have 
our  physics  laboratory,  laboratories  in  electrical  engineering  and  serv- 
ice and  mining  engineering,  a  variety  of  laboratories  where  tests  of 
research  work  of  various  kinds  is  going  on,  and  I  am  sure  you  will 
be  interested  while  here  to  see  the  work  of  architecture  and  design. 

Outside  of  the  college  of  engineering  there  is,  of  course,  a  great 
variety  of  work.  In  fact  one  of  the  things  which  impresses  us  at  the 
university,  and  it  must  impress  outside  people  also,  is  the  great  variety 
of  work  carried  on  in  the  University  of  Illinois.  Each  department  is 
working  in  its  own  line  and  getting  it  into  a  co-ordination  with  the 
college.  There  is  the  college  of  liberal  arts,  the  great  chemistry  labora- 
tory, with  all  its  facilities  and  its  laboratory  in  zoology,  the  college  of 
commerce  and  business  administration,  the  college  of  education,  and 
the  college  of  agriculture  and  its  great  experimental  crops  to  the  south 
and  farm  lands  and  buildings.  Tests  are  going  on  in  regard  to  soil 
cultivation,  in  regard  to  stock  and  a  variety  of  things  I  think  you  would 
be  interested  in  looking  at  if  you  have  the  time  to  get  a  glimpse  of 
all  of  them.  Then  we  have  our  gymnasium,  our  stadium  and  a  variety 
of  other  things. 

I  hope  you  will  be  at  home  and  take  what  opportunity  you  can 
get  in  seeing  something  of  the  university.  It  happens  we  have  just 
finished  the  regular  work  of  the  college  here  and  many  of  our  people 
are  away  and  things  are  not  going  on  regularly.  You  will  see  that  they 
are  dead  plants  at  the  present  time,  or  most  of  them,  but  in  your 
visit  around  you  will  be  able  to  get  some  idea  of  the  method  of  work 
and  of  the  great  importance  of  the  work  which  is  being  carried  on 
by  the  University  of  Illinois.  I  think  there  are  seventy-nine  buildings 
in  the  university  and  seven  are  being  built. 

Another  thing  that  may  interest  you  is  the  National  Warm  Air 
Heat  association,  which  deals  with  equipment  for  heating  buildings 
and  houses.  That  is  the  house  over  here  ( indicating) .  It  is  closed  at 
the  present  time,  but  is  open  through  the  winter  and  tests  are  being 
carried  on  through  the  year  to  determine  the  effectiveness  and  ad- 
vantages in  this  way  or  that  way  in  heating  appartus. 

We  have  a  great  variety  of  cooperative  investigations  here.  Funds 
are  furnished  largely  by  outside  associations.  The  investigations  of 
which  I  spoke  are  being  financed  by  the  manufacturers  of  certain 
classes  of  materials.  Tests  are  being  made  on  brake  shoes  for  cars. 
Another  investigation   was  made  about  three  years   ago   to   determine 


the  losses  of  pressure  in  forcing  air  through  a  long  concrete  conduit. 
a  long  pipe  you  may  call  it,  which  was  made  for  the  board  of  con- 
struction of  the  vehicular  tunnel  that  is  being  constructed  under  the 
Hudson  river,  between  Xew  York  and  New  Jersey.  That  was  done 
here  because  the  university  had  the  men  who  were  conversant  with 
that  sort  of  thing  and  who  would  know  how  to  conduct  the  test. 

That  is  an  example  of  the  sort  of  things  down  here.  Again  I 
want  to  say,  we  are  glad  you  are  here  and  I  would  ask  you  to  enjoy 
all  of  the  conferences.      (Applause.) 

Chairman  Palmer:  The  University  of  Illinois  is  an  ideal  ve- 
hicle for  a  meeting  such  as  this,  but  the  driving  power,  the  man  who 
has  started  the  vehicle,  the  man  who  has  made  possible  this  meeting, 
is  going  to  speak  to  you  next  and  I  take  great  pleasure  in  introducing 
John  G.  Gamber,  state  fire  marshal  of  Illinois.      (Applause.) 

THE  WORK  OF  THE   STATE   FIRE   MARSHAL 

By  John  G.  Gamber.  State  Fire  Marshal 

Mr.  Chairman  and  Gentlemen:  First  of  all  I  want  to  extend 
greetings  in  behalf  of  the  governor  of  the  state  in  a  written  statement 
that  he  prepared  and  wanted  me  to  read  to  you : 

"I  wish  it  were  possible  for  me  to  be  present  in  person  at 
the  opening  of  this  short  course.  The  closing  hours  of  the  gen- 
eral assembly  necessarily  keep  me  at  my  desk  at  Springfield,  but 
I  do  not  wish  to  let  the  opportunity  pass  of  expressing  my  per- 
sonal interest  in  this  undertaking  and  my  hope  and  belief  that 
it  will  bring  far-reaching  benefits  to  our  state  in  the  matter  of  fire 
control. 

"Our  tremendous  fire  waste,  both  in  human  life  and  property, 
is  a  blight  on  the  prosperity  and  happiness  of  our  people.  If  we 
are  to  check  this  waste,  and  reduce  it.  we  must  adopt  a  practical, 
effective  means  to  that  end.  The  fire  loss  of  the  state  is  simply 
the  sum  total  of  the  losses  in  the  hundreds  of  communities  of  the 
state.  Any  practical  fire  prevention  program  of  the  state  should, 
therefore,  give  an  important  place  to  providing  some  effective 
method  of  helping  local  communities  to  cut  down  their  losses. 
This.  I  understand,  is  the  thought  back  of  this  short  course. 

"I  can  conceive  of  no  greater  service  which  the  state  can 
render  its  communities  in  this  important  field  of  fire  control  than 
the  service  which  this  course  aims  to  render.  The  modern  prob- 
lem of  fire  prevention,  control  and  extinguishment  is  greatly  more 
complicated  than  it  was  a  few  years  back  and  will  become  more  so. 
Fire  chiefs  and  firemen  should  have  specialized  information  on 
its  essential  phases.  Very  few  of  our  communities  are  in  a  posi- 
tion to  provide  this  and  the  state  aims  to  meet  this  need  in  this 
course. 

"1  commend  the  University  of  Illinois  for  conducting  this 
course.  It  is  the  first  state  university  in  the  United  States  to 
apply  its  facilities  toward  a  practical  solution  of  the  tire  prob- 
lem.    I  am  proud  that   Illinois  has  again  blazed  the  way. 


"I  commend  State  Fire  Marshal  John  G.  Gamber  and  the 
Illinois  Firemen's  association  for  their  respective  parts  in  spon- 
soring the  course  and  cooperating  with  the  university  in  con- 
ducting it. 

"The  course  is  founded  on  sound  ideas.     It  ought  to  endure 
as  an  annual  event.     I  trust  that  it  will  do  so  and  that  its  benefits 
to  the  people  of  the  state  will  increase  each  year."' 
That  is  a  message  from  the  governor  to  you. 

Before  starting  in  on  the  subject  assigned  me  I  feel  that  I  want 
to  say  just  a  few  words.  I  feel  highly  elated  this  morning  at  the 
wonderful  showing  made  here  in  the  number  of  registrations  at  the 
opening  session.  I  have  been  told  by  the  professors  who  have  had 
charge  of  the  short  courses  that  this  is  one  of  the  largest  registra- 
tions which  has  been  made  or  had  at  the  opening  session  of  any  short 
course  that  has  been  conducted  here.  That,  in  itself,  is  evidence  that 
the  firemen  of  the  state  of  Illinois  are  looking  for  an  opportunity  to 
study  the  problem  and  get  first  hand  information.  I  feel  grateful  to 
the  firemen,  to  the  chiefs  and  to  the  city  officials  throughout  the  state 
for  the  support  they  have  given  this  movement  and  I  only  hope  that 
it  will  be.  as  the  governor  has  said,  an  annual  event.  I  have  dreamt 
this,  I  have  slept  it  and  I  have  eaten  it  for  the  last  five  or  six  years. 
It  has  been  my  hobby.  I  have  introduced  resolutions,  or  had  them 
introduced,  in  the  International,  in  the  National  Firemen's  association 
conventions  and  the  Illinois  Firemen's  association,  and  the  Illinois 
Firemen's  association  is  the  only  one  that  has  come  forth  and  put 
their  shoulder  to  the  wheel  and  given  it  a  good  push. 

I  want  to  thank  the  officials  and  members  of  the  Illinois  Firemen's 
association  for  the  help  given  me  in  this  matter. 

The  subject  assigned  to  me  is  "The  Work  of  the  State  Fire 
Marshal."  In  order  that  work  be  assigned  to  someone  there  must  be 
a  reason  for  doing  that  work.  The  fire  losses  in  Illinois  back  in  1909, 
when  the  state  fire  marshal's  office  was  first  organized,  were  somewhere 
around  eight  or  ten  million  dollars  per  annum.  There  was  no  idea 
at  that  time,  when  the  office  was  organized  or  first  established,  about 
taking  up  actual  fire  prevention  work  in  any  other  way  than  by  trying 
to  stop  incendiary  fires.  That  was  the  theory  and  on  that  basis  the 
office  was  organized.  Although  authority  and  power  were  given  to 
make  inspections,  the  real  thought  was  only  to  make  inspections  in 
connection  with  fires. 

The  law  was  passed  in  1909,  but  unfortunately,  and  as  perhaps 
some  of  the  university  trustees  and  officials  have  found  out,  the  legis- 
lature doesn't  always  do  the  wise  thing.  They  established  the  tire 
marshal's  office  and  forgot  to  make  any  appropriation.  Therefore, 
the  office  did  not  function  very  well  until  along  in  1911,  when  it  was 
finally  organized.  Prior  to  that  time  they  provided  for  the  salary 
of  the  fire  marshal,  who  was  my  good  friend  C.  J.  Doyle,  but  did  not 
provide  even  for  the  salary  of  a  stenographer  or  any  deputies.  Finally. 
along  toward  the  beginning  of  the  session,  the  1911  session,  he.  him- 
self, through  the  efforts  of  the  then  governor.  Charles  S.  Deneen,  em- 
ployed  a    few   deputies   with   the   understanding  that    they   would   have 


8 

to  wait  for  their  pay  until  after  July  1.  1911.  The  men  accepted  the 
proposition  and  started  to  work  and.  as  I  say.  the  first  work  was  the 
investigation  of  hres,  in  which  they  made  a  splendid  record. 

In  1911  the  appropriations  were  made  and  the  department  was 
then  fully  organized  with  about  eight  deputies  and  two  or  three  stenog- 
raphers. That  was  increased  during  that  two  year  period  to  about 
twelve  deputies  and  three  stenographers.  It  did  not  take  very  long 
for  them  to  realize  if  they  were  going  to  make  a  dent  into  the  fire  losses 
in  the  state  of  Illinois,  that  they  had  to  do  something  else  besides  the 
investigation  of  suspicious  fires,  so  they  established  an  inspection  de- 
partment in  connection  with  the  investigating  department. 

At  that  time  the  records  show  that  they  thought  that  they  were 
doing  wonderful  work,  and  no  doubt  they  were,  when  they  were  mak- 
ing 8,000  inspections  per  annum  throughout  the  state  of  Illinois.  The 
record  last  year  in  the  office  shows  that  we  have  made  a  little  bit  bet- 
ter than  65,000  inspections  outside  of  the  city  of  Chicago.  We  do 
not  attempt  to  make  inspections  in  the  city  of  Chicago  because  they 
litive  a  fire  prevention  bureau  there  which  functions  and  it  would  only 
make  an  overlapping  of  effort,  so  we  do  not  attempt  to  make  inspec- 
tions in  Chicago,  but  we  make  investigations. 

Well,  we  went  along.  The  fire  losses,  instead  of  decreasing,  in- 
creased. Of  course,  a  lot  of  it  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  population 
was  fast  increasing  and  the  value  of  property  going  up.  About  that 
time  the  fire  losses  in  the  nation  were  something  like  $225,000,000 
a  year.  Last  year,  1924,  with  incomplete  records,  shows  a  loss  in  the 
United  States  of  $548,000,000,  a  little  bit  over  a  half  a  billion  dollars. 
That's  a  matter  of  loss  in  dollars  and  cents.  Some  will  say,  "Oh.  well, 
look  at  the  insurance  ;  we  got  enough  money  out  of  it  to  rebuild." 
That  is  not  the  idea.  Property  that  is  burned  up  is  gone  forever  into 
the  winds  and  we  have  just  reduced  our  resources  in  the  United 
States  to  that  extent.  As  I  have  said,  that's  the  side  of  the  dollars 
and  cents  and  property. 

The  records  show  that  in  each  year  there  are  about  15,000  lives 
lost,  directly  due  to  fire.  In  addition,  there  are  anywhere  from  17,000 
to  18,000  crippled,  the  majority  of  whom  are  women  and  children, 
and  man}'  become  charges  of  the  state,  county  or  municipality  wherein 
the  fire  occurred. 

In  this  state  of  ours,  we  have  reached  the  sum  of  $24,000,000  per 
annum  in  fire  losses,  as  shown  by  the  reports  made  by  the  chiefs 
throughout  the  state,  with  hundreds  of  deaths  and  injuries. 

Xow.  we  are  getting  down  to  the  fire  losses.  As  I  have  stated, 
there  are  two  kinds  of  fire  losses  we  must  consider.  One  is  the  acci- 
dental, of  which  three- fourths,  fully  three-fourths,  is  preventable,  and 
it  is  through  a  course  of  this  kind  that  we  expect  to  reach  and  cut 
down  that  loss.  The  other  kind  of  loss  is  the  incendiary  that  generally 
is  set  for  gain  by  some  person  who  cares  not  what  he  does  to  the 
community  or  anybody  else.  It  is  just  a  matter  of  getting  the  almighty 
dollar.  He  is  the  hard  one  to  catch,  this  kind  of  crook,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  even  when  we  do  pin  the  facts  on  a  fellow,  sometimes 
the  judge,  sometimes  the  jury,  can  not  see  it  in  the  same  light  as  we  do. 


We  had  a  recent  experience  in  an  up-state  county, — I  am  not 
going  to  mention  the  county  or  the  judge's  name,  but  some  of  you 
perhaps  will  recognize  it,— where  a  man  had  a  record  of  starting  three 
fires  within  a  period  of  three  months.  In  one  instance,  a  neighbor  was 
putting  up  a  very  beautiful  home  for  himself.  This  man  was  rather 
jealous  of  the  neighbor  because  the  home  was  somewhat  better  than 
the  one  he  had  himself,  and  he  served  this  sort  of  notice  upon  his 
neighbor:  "If  you  don't  quit  building  your  house  so  much  better  than 
mine,  I  am  going  to  burn  it  down."  The  man  continued  on  building; 
he  did  not  think  the  fellow  meant  it.  One  night  about  midnight,  the 
alarm  went  forth  and  sure  enough,  on  the  side  of  the  house  next  to 
this  fellow  the  fire  had  a  fairly  good  start.  The  fire  department 
saved  a  portion  of  the  building.  We  investigated  that  tire,  but  did 
not  get  much  support.  A  short  time  later  he  again  served  notice  on 
somebodv  that  he  did  not  like  them  and  he  was  going  to  give  them 
a  visit.  He  again  made  good  his  word.  We  investigated  that  fire. 
The  third  time  he  bought  a  piece  of  property  in  that  city  for  which 
he  was  to  pay  $10,000.  He  had  $200  to  pay  down  and  was  to  pay 
the  balance  within  live  days.  The  contract  was  drawn  up,  everything 
was  in  good  shape,  the  man  who  sold  him  the  property  was  getting 
anxious  for  his  money,  the  hve  day  period  arrived  and  in  the  mean- 
time he  forged  a  check  and  forged  a  note,  trying  to  raise  the  money. 
He  did  not  make  good,  the  time  for  payment  lapsed,  the  formal  notice 
was  served  on  him,  which  meant  another  five  day's  service,  and  the 
property  was  sold  to  another  man.  That  night  at  midnight  that  build- 
ing was  set  on  hre.  While  the  lire  department  was  working  on  the 
tire,  this  fellow  was  across  the  street  from  the  building  with  a  jimmy 
in  his  hand,  trying  to  prevent  the  firemen  from  working  on  the  build- 
ing. He  was  arrested,  taken  to  jail  and  the  jimmy  taken  from  him. 
By  good  fortune  a  portion  of  the  front  part  of  the  building  was  saved 
and  in  that  portion  was  a  door  which  that  fellow  had  jimmied.  They 
noticed  in  the  morning  that  the  door  was  jimmied,  went  to  the  jail 
and  got  this  jimmy  and  fitted  it  in  the  groove  in  the  door  jamb.  That's 
the  evidence  we  had  to  start  with. 

This  fellow  was  indicted  and  the  matter  was  postponed  from  time 
to  time  for  trial.  Finally  it  was  called  up  and  the  attorney  for  the 
defendant  asked  that  the  man's  sanity  be  inquired  into.  That  meant 
another  postponement.  It  went  over  for  a  week  and  it  was  again  called 
up.  They  had  not  completed  the  sanity  investigation  and  it  went  over 
for  another  week.  Finally  it  came  up  for  trial  and  the  jury  found 
him  sane.  The  arson  matter  then  came  up  for  trial.  The  judge  in 
i lie  meantime  had  asked  the  prosecuting  attorney,  as  well  as  the  attor- 
ney for  the  defendant,  what  they  wanted  to  try  this  fellow  on.  The 
fellow  was  not  in  court  at  that  time  and  the  sheriff  was  instructed  to 
bring  him  in.  Finally  the  judge  himself  suggested  that  they  try  him 
Upon  the  forgery  charge  and  that  he  would  suggest  that  the  man  plead 
guilty  and  he  would  give  him  one  year,  the  arson  charge  to  be  with- 
drawn with  the  right  to  reinstate.  The  state's  attorney  did  not  take- 
to  that  very  kindly,  but  after  consulting  with  the  witnesses  and  some 
business  men  in  this  village,  he  consented.     When  the  man  was  brought 


10 

into  court  he  refused  to  plead  guilty,  so  the  judge  took  him  in  charge, 
talked  to  him  and  finally  he  said,  "All  right,  if  you  say  so  I  will  plead 
guilty.''  When  the  fellow  plead  guilty  the  judge,  instead  of  fixing  the 
sentence  at  one  year,  fixed  it  at  six  months  and  was  going  to  take 
off  of  that  the  time  he  had  already  been  in  jail  because  he  could  not 
furnish  bond,  which  would  reduce  the  sentence  another  thirty  days. 
The  state's  attorney  objected  and  said  he  would  not  withdraw  the  arson 
charge.  The  judge  looked  at  him  and  said.  "If  you  don't  you  are  going 
to  try  him  immediately  on  the  arson  charge."  The  state's  attorney 
said,  "I  am  ready,  your  Honor.''  The  judge  said,  "Now,  let  me  tell 
you,  young  man,  before  you  start,  I  am  going  to  find  the  fellow  not 
guilty."  The  jury  was  impaneled  and  the  state's  attorney  offered  his 
evidence.  The  defense  did  not  offer  any  and  when  the  state's  attor- 
ney got  up  to  argue,  the  judge  called  him  down  and  said.,  "You  have 
no  argument  to  make ;  I  have  told  you  what  I  am  going  to  do."  He 
proceeded  to  produce  the  form  of  verdict,  handed  it  to  the  jury  and 
said,  "Go  back  and  get  at  it  as  fast  as  you  can  and  find  this  man  not 
guilty."  The  jury  was  out  twenty  minutes.  He  sent  the  sheriff  after 
them.  The  sheriff  brought  them  in.  He  said,  "What's  the  matter 
with  you  fellows,  can't  you  follow  the  instructions  of  the  court?"  One 
fellow  spoke  up  and  said,  "We  have  not  organized  yet."  "Well."  said 
the  judge,  "you  are  too  late,  you  are  discharged."  Then  he  proceeded 
to  find  the  defendant  not  guilty  and  entered  an  order  therefor.  Then 
he  proceeded  to  sentence  him  on  the  forgery  charge  and  gave  him 
forty  days.  On  second  thought  he  reduced  that  to  thirty  days  and 
gave  him  the  time  he  had  already  served,  which  made  it  only  a  day 
or  two  he  had  to  serve. 

That  is  what  we  are  confronted  with.  Do  you  wonder  why  we  get 
discouraged?  That  is  some  of  the  work  of  the  fire  marshal  and  his 
deputies.  That  is  only  one  of  the  many  instances  that  we  have  to 
contend  with,  so  we  get  pretty  thoroughly  discouraged. 

Whenever  we  can  get  a  state's  attorney  or  court  willing  to  coop- 
erate with  us,  we  go  in  and  try  to  get  convictions,  but  even  in  cases 
where  we  have  had  confessions  and  they  were  read  to  the  jury,  the 
fellow  has  been  found  not  guilty  simply  because  he  was  a  member  of 
some  good  secret  society  the  court  belonged  to  or  some  member  of  the 
jury  belonged  to. 

We  had  one  a  short  time  ago  where  a  man  was  away  up  in  a  cer- 
tain order,  and  we  were  confronted  with  the  fact  that  the  judge  be- 
longed to  the  same  order,  the  state's  attorney  belonged  to  the  same 
order,  and  the  sheriff  belonged  to  the  same  order,  so  what  chance  do 
you  think  we  had?  We  finally  got  a  plea  of  guilty  from  the  defendant 
with  an  understanding  he  would  surrender  his  insurance  policv.  make 
no  claim,  pay  a  fine  of  $1,000  and  stay  out  of  the  state  of  Illinois  for  a 
period  of  ten  years.    That  is  one  way  we  have  of  getting  rid  of  them. 

On  our  inspection  work  what  we  want  to  do  is  to  cooperate  with 
the  chiefs  and  fire  departments  throughout  the  state,  but  in  doing  so 
we  want  the  chiefs  and  city  officials  to  bear  in  mind  the  old  saving  that 
"God  helps  them  who  help  themselves."  If  you  are  not  going  to  take 
the  lead,  blaze  the  way  in  your  own  city  and  pass  the  necessarv  ordi- 


11 

nances,  we  are  almost  powerless  to  do  very  much  in  your  city.  With  a 
force  of  forty  or  forty-five  men  in  the  department  you  can  readily 
see  we  can  only  scrape  the  surface  and,  when  called  upon  by  the  chiefs 
in  the  different  cities,  we  attempt  to  take  care  of  the  most  pressing 
needs  in  those  cities. 

As  I  said,  last  year  we  made  65,000  inspections,  but  that  doesn't 
mean  the  rechecks.  Every  order  that  is  issued  is  rechecked.  We  at- 
tempt to  select,  in  a  community  where  we  are  unable  to  get  very  much 
compliance,  several  of  the  most  drastic  cases  or  the  most  neglected 
places  and  if  the  fellow  will  not  respond  to  our  request,  we  convince 
him  by  issuing  a  summons  and  letting  him  appear  before  the  judge  and 
tell  the  judge  his  troubles.  By  making  a  few  prosecutions  in  the  dif- 
ferent communities,  it  makes  the  other  fellow  sit  up  and  take  notice  and 
he  starts  to  clean  up  and  comply.  In  some  communities  we  have  had  to 
arrest  ten  and  fifteen  men  and  have  them  fined  from  $10  and  costs  to 
as  high  as  $50  and  costs,  which  in  some  instances  will  amount  to  about 
$*>:->  or  $04.  Those  fellows  will  immediately  start  to  clean  up.  because 
we  have  made  it  a  rule  after  a  man  has  been  fined,  to  serve  a  five  day 
notice,  and  if  he  does  not  make  an  effort  in  the  five  days  to  comply, 
we  take  him  for  another  ride  to  the  justice  of  the  peace,  and  in  some 
instances  the  justice  is  kind  enough  to  make  the  fine  double  the  amount 
of  the  first. 

We  gave  an  experience  to  a  gentleman  in  southern  Illinois  who 
was  in  the  habit  of  dumping  gasoline  in  the  sewer.  The  fire  chief  had 
called  upon  this  fellow  and  he  told  the  fire  chief  to  go  to  the  hot  place  ; 
that  he  was  running  his  place  of  business.  The  fire  chief  tried  to  get 
the  mayor  to  do  something  and  the  mayor  would  not  back  him  up.  The 
fire  chief  called  me  on  the  telephone,  said  he  did  not  dare  to  write  as 
he  did  not  want  anything  of  record.  We  sent  our  man  there  six  hours 
after  the  chief  called  me.  We  served  notice  on  this  fellow.  He  did 
the  same  thing  that  night.  The  next  morning  we  took  him  to  the  jus- 
tice of  the  peace  and  he  gave  him  a  fine  of  $100  and  costs.  Three  days 
later  he  did  the  same  thing  and  was  defiant ;  said  they  could  not  fine 
him  this  time.  We  pulled  him  in  again  and  the  judge  gave  him  $200 
and  costs.  That  fellow  is  a  real  dyed-in-the-wool  fire  preventionist 
in  that  city  now.    We  have  no  more  trouble  with  him. 

These  are  the  things  we  have  to  contend  with.  We  want  your  sup- 
port in  it.  We  are  willing  to  go  the  limit  for  you.  If  you  can  not  get 
your  own  city  officials  to  back  you  up,  we  will  back  you  up,  but  I  want 
you  to  make  the  effort  first,  show  us  that  you  are  with  us  and  we  will 
go  the  limit  with  you.  With  that  kind  of  cooperation  there  is  not  any 
question  but  what  we  can  make  a  record  and  a  showing  in  the  state. 
Of  course,  you  say  you  have  not  the  experience  necessary  for  work  of 
that  kind  and  you  are  somewhat  timid  in  making  inspections.  That  is 
the  purpose  of  this  course.  We  are  here  to  listen  to  men  who  have 
had  the  experience,  who  know  about  this  kind  of  work,  and  we  are 
going  to  have  views  exchanged  here,  and  I  want  everyone  of  you  to 
make  up  your  mind  that  if  there  is  anything  you  do  not  thoroughly 
understand,  as  discussed  here,  don't  be  bashful.  We  are  all  the  same 
kind  of  fellows  here,  all  starting  from  the  same  class.     Ask  a  question 


12 

you  are  in  doubt  about  and  somebody  here  will  attempt  to  answer  it  for 
you  and  help  you  out  so  you  can  go  back  home  with  a  feeling  of  con- 
fidence that  you  will  do  the  right  thing. 

That  same  thing  applies  to  the  incendiary  question,  where  you 
have  questionable  fires.  We  will  help  you  wherever  we  can.  Get  word 
to  us  as  quickly  as  you  can  and  we  will  try  to  help  you  clean  up  and 
get  rid  of  the  firebugs,  but  in  the  meantime,  watch  the  fellow  sitting 
on  high  and  giving  instructions  to  the  jury.  If  he  is  not  right,  there 
is  a  day  of  reckoning  coming  for  him.  You  as  firemen  are  the  men 
entering  the  places  that  have  been  set  by  these  crooks,  not  knowing 
whether  you  are  going  to  return  to  you  engine  house  or  family  that 
you  left  in  the  morning.  If  the  fellow  who  sits  on  high  gives  instruc- 
tions as  he  did  in  this  case  I  cited  to  you.  let's  figure  with  him  at  the 
next  election.  He  has  no  business  on  the  bench.  Where  he  belongs  is 
over  in  Russia  and  they  will  make  short  work  of  him  there  if  he  ever 
gets  there.     (Applause.) 

Before  closing,  I  want  to  mention  some  ordinances  that  are  neces- 
sary. Where  a  city  is  large  enough  to  warrant  it,  you  should  have  a 
lire  prevention  bureau.  If  not  a  real  bureau,  you  should  have  men  who 
are  assigned  to  do  nothing  else  during  certain  periods  of  their  hours  on 
duty  but  make  inspections. 

It  is  the  little  hazards,  the  rubbish  and  trash,  that  cause  a  great 
many  of  the  fires  that  we  are  having.  Get  rid  of  the  rubbish  in  your 
city  or  in  your  village  and  you  are  going  to  get  rid  of  pretty  near  one- 
half  of  the  fire  causes  you  have.  Every  community  should  enforce 
strict  regulations  on  this  subject. 

Xext  in  importance  is  an  anti-wooden  shingle  ordinance.  I  am 
sorry  to  say  that  there  are  a  few  cities  in  the  state  of  Illinois  that  are 
going  backwards  along  that  line.  Two  or  three  cities  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  state  have  repealed  the  anti- wooden  shingle  ordinance  be- 
cause the  mayor,  in  some  instances,  is  the  lumber  man  of  the  city.  He 
is  not  doing  anything  for  his  city,  he  is  only  causing  trouble.  During 
the  last  year  in  Illinois  we  had  about  1.600  roof  fires,  all  due  to  wooden 
shingles.  .  The  fires  that  you  have  due  to  wooden  shingles  are  the  ones 
that  strike  nearest  to  our  hearts.  They  are  in  the  homes,  where  your 
loved  one-  are  and  you  never  can  tell  when  a  wooden  shingle  root  -tarts 
to  burn  what  it  is  going  to  do  to  the  neighbors  or  the  houses  in  the 
block,  or  for  blocks  away.  Practically  all  of  the  big  conflagrations  we 
have  had.  such  as  Baltimore,  Paris,  Texas,  and  Berkeley,  California. 
have  been  due  to  wooden  shingles. 

I  remember  a  few  years  ago.  when  the  International  Fire  Engi- 
neer- met  in  California.  1  was  walking  through  the  city  of  Berkeley  with 
the  chief  from  Buffalo  and  the  secretary  from  Detroit.  We  were  walk- 
ing through  the  city  to  make  a  survey  and  I  made  the  remark  to  the 
chief  from  Detroit,  "What  would  ever  happen  in  this  town  if  a  good 
wind  storm  and  a  roof  tire  got  started?"  lie  said.  "Don't  talk  about 
it."  li  was  only  about  a  year  afterwards  when  the  message  was  flashed 
over  the  wires  that  Berkeley  had  practically  been  burned  down,  all  due 
to  the  wooden  shingles.  It  started  on  one  house  that  was  near  a  ravine 
going   into   the   mountains.      A    good    puff   of    wind   coming   down   that 


13 

opening  started  this  blaze  going  and  the  sparks  flew  from  roof  to  roof. 
You.  as  firemen,  recall  the  reports  you  saw  the  day  the  message  flashed 
over  the  wires.  I  got  telegrams  from  three  chiefs  who  were  with  me 
on  that  survey,  just  saying.  "It  has  happened."     I  knew  what  it  meant. 

Both  North  and  South  Carolina  have  had  some  disastrous  wooden 
shingle  fires,  and  there  have  been  several  in  Texas. 

Are  we  ever  going  to  learn  that  the  time  to  act  is  today  ?  We 
must  protect  ourselves  and  the  only  way  we  can  do  so  is  to  get  the 
proper  ordinances  passed.  I  am  not  going  to  intrude  upon  my  friend, 
Mr.  Pierce,  because  he  will  tell  you  about  the  laboratories  but  there  are 
tests  made  by  the  laboratories  and  various  brands  and  kinds  of  fire- 
proof shingles  are  approved. 

We  should  have  in  every  city  in  the  state  of  Illinois  an  anti-wooden 
shingle  ordinance.  The  time  is  coming  when  we  are  going  to  make  it 
statewide.  I  am  going  to  dream  it.  eat  it  and  sleep  it,  the  same  as  I 
did  this  short  course.     (Applause.) 

I  am  going  to  cut  this  short  right  here  because  some  of  you  per- 
haps want  to  ask  some  questions.  I  want  again  to  express  my  gratitude 
to  the  chiefs  and  city  officials  for  the  splendid  attendance  here  today. 
I  will  go  back  to  Springfield,  make  my  report  to  the  governor  and  will 
start  out  anew,  not  to  make  it  a  short  course  the  next  time,  but  to  make 
it  a  two  weeks'  course.  We  will  get  you  down  here,  drill  you  two  weeks 
and  you  will  go  back  home  so  enthused  there  will  not  be  any  fires  for 
some  time  to  come.     I  thank  you.     (Applause.) 

If  there  are  any  questions  anybody  wants  to  ask  I  will  be  glad  to 
answer  them  if  I  can. 

DISCUSSION 

Professor  Provixe:  In  your  inspections  you  are  looking  after 
fire  inspections  as  well  as  fires  from  the  incendiary  point  of  view? 

Mr.  Gamber  :     Yes.  sir. 

Professor  Provixe:  The  larger  towns  have  certain  ordinances 
and  when  you  go  into  a  communitv  to  investigate,  what  ordinance  pre- 
vails? 

Mr.  Gamber:  On  the  question  of  investigations,  very  few  cities 
have  any  ordinances  that  cover  that  feature.  That  is  part  of  the  crim- 
inal code,  written  into  the  criminal  statutes  of  the  state  and  we  make 
the  investigations  under  the  criminal  code  with  the  authority  given  the 
state  fire  marshal's  office.  As  to  inspections  for  fire  hazards,  the  law 
provides  we  shall  have  concurrent  jurisdiction  in  cities  where  they  have 
ordinances,  and  we  go  out  with  the  fire  chief  or  some  of  his  men  he 
may  assign  and  we  make  the  order  to  comply  with  the  city  ordinance 
and  prosecute  under  the  city  code.     Does  that  answer  you  question? 

Professor  Provixe:     May  I  ask  one  more  question? 

Mr.  ( rAMBER  :     Yes,  sir. 

Professor  Provixe:  Take  an  example,  purely  imaginative  but  in 
a  community  which  does  not  exist  except  in  my  mind.  1  feel  its  public 
auditorium  is  not  properly  safeguarded  from  an  exit  point  of  view  as 
well  as  a  tire  hazard.     What  will  be  the  rule  of  procedure  for  me  to  re- 


14 

port  this  to  you?     I  am  powerless  in  my  community  to  do  very  much. 

Mr.  Gamber:  Report  that  a  certain  building  has  not  proper  exit 
facilities  or  is  so  situated  it  is  dangerous  as  to  fire,  also  dangerous  as  to 
life,  and  we  will  assign  a  man  to  make  an  inspection. 

Professor  Provine:  Is  it  desirable  or  necessary  that  it  go 
through  the  local  fire  department?  They  are  cooperating  with  me  but 
have  been  powerless. 

Mr.  Gamber:  Unless  we  had  information  that  the  chief  himself 
was  lukewarm  on  the  matter,  the  deputy  would  have  instructions  to  go 
to  the  fire  chief  first,  take  the  matter  up  with  him  and  then  proceed 
to  the  building  and  if  possible  take  the  chief  or  some  man  assigned  by 
him  with  him. 

Mr.  Wills,  South  Elgin:  Would  it  not  be  the  part  of  wisdom 
relative  to  the  wooden  shingles  to  have  a  committee  of  some  kind  ap- 
pointed to  wait  on  the  legislative  body  of  the  state  of  Illinois  to  see 
if  a  law  could  not  be  enacted  to  condemn  the  use  of  those  shingles? 

Mr.  Gamber:  I  say  yes  and  no.  We  are  going  back  to  the  trend 
of  local  or  home  rule  and  T  just  want  to  reiterate  what  I  said  before 
that  it  is  a  question  of,  "God  helps  them  who  help  themselves."  I 
realize  that  sometimes  it  is  almost  impossible  in  a  community  to  put 
over  a  thing,  therefore,  we  try  to  supplant  that  by  a  state  law.  If  I  may 
just  suggest:  A  few  years  ago  I  saw  it  coming  and  I  guess  a  good 
many  of  you  saw  it  coming,  the  gasoline  proposition  in  tilling  stations. 
I  knew  it  was  only  going  to  be  a  matter  of  time  until  we  would  have 
filling  stations  on  almost  every  corner,  as  numerous  as  the  thirst  parlors 
were  some  years  ago,  so  we  made  an  effort  to  get  some  cities  to  pass 
ordinances.  We  did  not  get  very  far,  so  I  went  before  the  legislature 
and  secured  passage  of  a  bill  giving  the  department  of  trade  and  com- 
merce, under  which  we  operate,  the  right  to  make  the  necessary  rules 
regulating  the  sale,  storage,  transportation,  etc.,  of  gasoline  and  all  oils. 
including  fuel  oil.  We  immediately  proceeded  to  get  up  a  set  of  rules. 
We  printed  some  20,000  and  distributed  them  throughout  the  state. 
Where  the  city  or  village  does  not  pass  an  ordinance,  it  comes  within 
the  provisions  of  those  rules  and  it  is  up  to  the  state  fire  marshal  to 
regulate  handling  of  oils  in  such  cities  and  villages. 

Mr.  Lewis,  Canton  :  We  have  an  ordinance  in  the  city  of  Canton 
and  I  would  say  they  don't  get  by  with  anything  else.  The  city  official^ 
back  us  up  to  a  man. 

Mr.  L.  L.  Wolf,  Cincinnati,  Ohio:  I  come  from  a  city  that  was 
one  of  the  first  cities  in  the  United  States  to  put  in  effect  a  shingle 
ordinance  and  1  think  we  have  a  model  ordinance  that  has  been  copied 
by  man_\-  cities  in  the  United  States.  We  haven't  a  shingle  roof  in  the 
lire  limits  of  Cincinnati  today.  We  passed  an  ordinance  and  made 
it  possible  that  any  time  there  was  a  shingle  roof  fire  that  destroyed 
twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  roof,  that  shingle  roof  could  not  be  repaired. 
That  was  good,  but  meant  many  fires  on  shingle  roofs.  We  had  a  good 
fire  department  and  never  allowed  a  lire  to  destroy  twenty-five  per  cent, 
but  wherever  the  fire  failed  to  do  it  we  did  it.  In  that  way  we  got 
rid  of  all  shingle  roofs  within  the  lire  limits  of   Cincinnati. 


15 

The  speaker  forgot  to  mention  one  of  the  biggest  shingle  roof  con- 
flagrations, that  was  in  Atlanta,  Georgia.  I  was  there  and  went  to  the 
fire  with  Chief  Cody.  I  saw  fire  jump  three  blocks  and  catch  a  shingle 
roof.  Nineteen  alarms  from  different  parts  of  Atlanta  came  in.  The 
fire  got  so  great  the  fire  department  was  not  sufficient  and  they  had 
every  assistance  possible.  It  hecame  necessary  to  blast  or  dynamite 
blocks  of  houses  to  save  what  we  conld.  This  occurred  in  Atlanta. 
Georgia. 

Your  speaker  was  present  at  that  same  city  and  I  was  sitting  in 
the  audience  with  George  Booth  when  a  certain  chief  of  the  fire  depart- 
ment made  the  assertion  that  he  thought  it  was  a  good  thing  to  lay 
fire-proof  shingles  on  top  of  the  wooden  shingles.  If  anybody  has  that 
idea  in  his  mind  and  figures  on  putting  fire-proof  shingles  over  the  old 
shingles,  it  might  be  a  temporary  relief,  but  in  my  estimation  I  think 
it  is  worse  than  a  shingle  roof.  If  a  fire  ever  originates  around  a  flue 
and  commences  to  burn  underneath,  you  haven't  a  chance  to  fight  it 
and  what  you  are  going  to  get  is  a  lateral  spread  of  fire.  If  you  are 
going  to  have  fire-proof  shingles,  make  them  take  oft"  the  old  shingles 
and  put  on  a  good  fire-proof  roof. 

Mr.  Hammerer:  Does  a  retail  merchant  have  a  right  to  retail 
gas  by  the  gallon  in  his  place  of  business? 

Mr.  Gamber:  We  provide  that  he  cannot  have  over  five  gallons 
above  ground  and  that  must  be  in  a  safety  can.  If  he  has  it  only  in  a 
five  gallon  lot,  he  can  not  very  well  retail  it. 

Mr.  Wolf:  He  could  still  retail  it  in  gallon  lots  if  he  could  have 
five  gallons. 

Mr.  Gamber:     He  would  not  have  very  much  of  it. 

Mr.  R.  H.  Bradbeex,  Spring  Valley :  In  a  case  where  you 
thought  a  building  had  been  set  on  fire  and  you  wanted  to  take  legal 
procedure,  would  it  be  best  to  take  it  up  locally  or  take  it  up  with  the 
state  fire  marshal  ? 

Mr.  Gamber:  If  you  have  a  sheriff  who  will  cooperate  with  you 
and  give  you  support  it  is  all  right  to  take  it  up  with  the  sheriff.  The 
chances  are  he  will  notify  us  anyhow,  but  I  would  as  leave  you  would 
notify  us  direct. 

Mr.  Bradbeex:  But  from  a  legal  point  of  view  you  can  take  it 
up  either  way? 

Mr.  Gamber:  Yes.  We  would  have  to  operate  through  your 
state's  attorney  anyhow. 

Chairman  Palmer:  On  a  little  side  street  running  to  the  east 
on  upper  Michigan  boulevard  in  Chicago  there  is  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting laboratories  that  I  have  ever  been  in,  that's  Underwriters'  Lab- 
oratories. We  have  with  us  this  morning  Mr.  Dana  Pierce,  president 
of  Underwriters'  Laboratories,  who  will  have  something  worth  while 
for  you  T  am  sure. 

UNDERWRITERS'  LABORATORIES 
By  Dana  Pierce,  President  of  Laboratories 
I  have  a  short  time  to  speak  to  you.  but  have  a  very  different 
story  to  tell  from  that  you  just  heard.     It  is  a  story  of  a  rather  quiet 


h; 

institution,  as  the  chairman  said,  on  a  side  street  in  Chicago.  There 
nothing  very  exciting  goes  on,  apparently.  I  want  to  try  to  tell  you 
where  1  think  the  work  of  Underwriters'  Laboratories  fits  in  with  the 
general  program  of  study  of  fire  prevention  and  fire  protection. 

Within  the  lifetime  of  many  people  still  living  the  world  has  seen 
vast  changes.  Let  us  examine  for  the  moment  some  of  these  changes 
from  the  point  of  view  of  fire  prevention  and  fire  protection. 

Seventy-five  years  ago  our  cities  were  comparatively  small  and 
neither  their  business  districts  nor  their  suburbs  had  attained  any  such 
size  or  congestion  as  we  see  today.  Values  as  represented  by  both 
buildings  and  their  contents  were  also  much  smaller  than  now  and  were 
very  differently  distributed.  Correspondingly  the  fire  departments 
were  smaller,  less  elaborately  equipped  and  less  expensive.  In  those 
days  there  were  no  skyscrapers  and  no  enormously  congested  areas 
either  of  office  buildings  or  in  wide-spread  factory  districts.  The  whole 
physical  character  of  our  cities  and  towns  has  materially  changed  and 
is  becoming  increasingly  vast  and  complicated. 

Within  a  lifetime  we  have  seen  the  entire  development  of  electric- 
ity as  universally  used  for  power  and  light.  In  the  earlier  days  we 
had  no  gasoline,  no  acetylene,  no  wide  distribution  of  oils,  gasoline  and 
other  hazardous  liquids,  and  no  automobiles. 

The  development  of  industrial  chemistry  with  all  of  its  consequent 
complications  in  living  and  working  conditions  both  in  the  factory  and 
in  the  home  has  come  about  largely  within  the  span  of  a  single  life. 
Seventy-five  years  ago  practically  all  power  was  derived  from  steam 
and  flowing  water. 

It  must  be  apparent  to  everyone  that  our  time  has  seen  not  only  a 
marvelous  development  in  the  application  of  science,  but  a  correspond- 
ing increase  in  the  hazard  of  living  of  all  sorts  for  each  and  everyone 
of  us.  Along  with  these  hazards  has  developed  the  art  and  science  of 
extinguishing  fires,  but  nevertheless  the  fire  loss  in  our  country  con- 
tinues to  grow  year  by  year. 

One  writer  has  described  the  situation  in  the  following  words, 
"We  have  exchanged  the  few  natural  hazards  of  our  early  ancestors 
for  a  bewildering  number  of  artificial  dangers  that  have  grown  up  with 
the  progress  of  civilization.  Everything  today  is  on  a  vastly  greater 
scale.  Man-made  towns  are  swept  by  conflagrations  springing  from 
man-caused  fires.  Man-made  buildings  collapse  and  bury  scores. 
Man-made  ships  sink  at  sea  and  man-made  trains  crash  in  collision. 
Man's  faithful  servants:  fire,  steam,  electricity  and  the  processes  of 
chemistry,  which  he  has  called  forth  from  the  realm  of  nature,  fre- 
quently escape  their  bounds  and  work  havoc.  As  the  result  of  thou- 
sands of  years  of  meddling  with  nature,  man  has  thus  exchanged  the 
old  natural  world  for  a  new  and  artificial  world  of  tremendous  poten- 
tialities and  unnumbered  perils.  Thus  new  and  complex  hazards  are 
by  products  of  science.  If  man  is  now  surrounded  by  such  a  diversity 
of  dangers  it  is  needless  to  state  that  these  have  not  been  sought,  but 
have  arisen  unsought  and  sometimes  unrecognized  in  the  course  of  ef- 
forts to  improve  conditions  of  human  life." 


17 

Such  considerations  as  the  foregoing  lead  to  the  development  of  a 
great  campaign  for  tire  prevention  which  characterizes  the  present  day, 
originally  promoted  chiefly  by  the  tire  insurance  interests  ;  it  has  since 
grown  to  be  nation-wide  with  many  organizations  cooperating  in  it. 

Some  thirty  years  ago  it  began  to  be  realized  that  one  of  the  funda- 
mental needs  in  any  independent  warfare  on  fire  was  exact  knowledge 
concerning  the  materials  which  contributed  to  fires  and  conflagrations, 
the  appliances  and  resources  available  for  preventing  or  extinguishing 
fires  and  in  fact  scientific  knowledge  of  all  of  the  elements  involved 
in  the  problem  of  fire  protection  as  they  arise  in  our  buildings. 

The  need  of  this  information  and  of  tests  by  which  it  could  be  se- 
cured was  first  realized  by  the  insurance  companies,  whose  attention 
to  this  was  particularly  secured  by  the  early  work  of  W.  H.  Merrill  of 
Chicago,  at  that  time  an  insurance  inspector.  It  was  from  his  recogni- 
tion of  the  need  of  a  central  adequate  testing  organization  that  Under- 
writers' Laboratories  was  created.  It  was  realized  that  the  underwriter 
engaged  in  the  business  of  insurance  was  not  of  himself  qualified  to 
judge  the  great  number  of  engineering  problems  involved  in  building 
construction,  maintenance,  and  operation.  It  was  equally  true  that  few 
builders  or  owners  of  buildings  had  or  could,  of  themselves,  secure 
such  information,  nor  had  manufacturers  of  building  materials  and 
equipment  themselves  determined  with  reliability  the  value  of  the 
safety  of  the  products  offered  to  the  public.  The  same  was  true  of  city 
authorities  charged  with  the  duty  of  making  statutes,  codes,  and  in- 
spections in  the  public  interest.  If  none  of  these,  as  is  evidenced,  could 
be  experienced  in  the  field  of  fire  prevention  twenty-five  or  thirty  vears 
ago.  still  more  is  it  true  today. 

Starting  from  very  modest  and  simple  beginnings,  Underwriters' 
Laboratories  has  extended  its  work  into  a  wide  range  of  engineering 
fields  until  it  has  now  become  an  institution  of  national  importance  not 
only  to  the  insurance  world  which  gave  it  its  original  reason  for  ex- 
istence, but  quite  as  much  to  the  general  public,  municipalities  and  all 
who  are  interested  in  the  safety  of  towns,  cities  and  people. 

Xaturally.  Underwriters'  Laboratories  finds  it  necessary  to  cooper- 
ate in  its  engineering  work  not  only  with  the  insurance  fraternity,  but 
with  the  endless  variety  of  sciences,  technical  and  trade  organizations 
whose  technical  and  business  relations  are  affected  by  it  and  are  con- 
tributory to  its  knowledge  and  experience,  but  this  is  not  the  time  to 
attempt  an  explanation  of  all  of  these  forms  of  relation  and  coop- 
eration. 

Underwriters'  Laboratories,  established  and  maintained  by  the  Na- 
tional Hoard  of  Fire  Underwriters,  is  for  ''service— not  profit."  The 
object  of  Underwriters'  Laboratories  is  to  bring  to  the  user  the  best 
obtainable  opinion  on  the  merits  of  appliances,  devices,  machines,  and 
materials  with  respect  to  life.  fire,  and  collision  hazards  and  theft  and 
accident  prevention.  This  work  is  undertaken  as  one  means  of  reduc- 
ing the  enormous  and  unnecessary  loss  of  life  and  property  by  lire  and 
accident.  It  can.  not  be  emphasized  too  strongly  thai  the  Laboratories 
are  a  testing  organization  whose  opinions  are  not  based  upon  individual 
judgment   of   its   engineers,   but   primarily   upon    the   results   of    actual 


18 

tests  and  investigations  especially  designed  to  bring  out  the  information 
or  significance  from  the  view  point  of  hazards  and  protection. 

Its  principal  plant  on  Ohio  street  in  Chicago  represents  a  very 
large  investment  in  buildings  and  in  a  vast  variety  of  special  apparatus 
for  the  conduct  of  tests  of  all  sorts.  Manufactuerrs  desiring  to  have 
their  products  tested  submit  them  to  the  Laboratories,  together  with 
the  payment  of  a  preliminary  fee  as  an  earnest  of  good  faith.  The  tests 
are  conducted  in  accordance  with  elaborately  prepared  standards,  which 
are  the  outgrowth  not  only  of  the  experience  of  Laboratories'  engi- 
neers and  their  advisors,  but  also  of  the  industries  affected.  It  is  very 
difficult  in  a  brief  article  to  give  an  adequate  idea  either  of  the  range 
of  work  undertaken  or  of  the  elaborate  and  highly  specialized  equip- 
ment utilized  for  it,  and  only  a  brief  statement  of  some  of  the  more 
important  features  of  the  work  can  be  undertaken  here. 

Automatic  sprinkler  equipment  is  undoubtedly  the  greatest  single 
device  for  reducing  the  fire  loss  and  the  testing  of  sprinklers  and  all 
the  related  appliances  that  go  with  them  naturally  forms  an  important 
part  of  Laboratories'  work.  The  familiar  sprinkler  head  i^  subjected 
to  very  searching  tests  of  hydrostatic  pressure,  sensitiveness,  water 
hammer,  leakage,  rough  usage,  and  the  like.  The  amount  and  distri- 
bution of  the  water  from  the  sprinkler  head  is  investigated  and  every 
possible  form  of  weaknss  or  inefficiency  is  guarded  against  both  by  the 
original  tests  and  equally  by  a  constant  re-inspection  of  sprinklers  as 
they  are  made  in  the  different  factories.  Some  thousands  of  sprinkler 
heads  taken  from  buildings  are  retested  each  year  to  determine  the  de- 
gree to  which  they  may  have  deteriorated  by  the  effects  of  time,  cor- 
rosion, or  otherwise.  The  Laboratories  has  a  large  and  very  finely 
equipped  hydraulic  laboratory  in  which  all  the  necessarv  tests  are  made 
of  alarm  valves,  dry  pipe  valves,  meters  and  the  other  complicated  and 
vastly  important  parts  of  fire  protection  equipment  of  the  modern  fac- 
tory or  office  building. 

The  importance  of  such  work  in  determining  in  advance,  rather 
than  during  or  after  a  fire,  the  adequacy  of  this  most  important  form 
of  lire  protection  is  quite  obvious. 

Closely  related  to  this  is  the  work  of  Laboratories  in  testing  and 
inspecting  fire  hose,  including  both  hose  for  building  equipment  and 
hose  used  by  municipal  fire  departments.  A  city  which  desires  to  se- 
cure reliable  hre  hose  made  under  standards  proved  by  years  of  ex- 
perience to  be  adequate  and  proper  may  buy  labeled  fire  hose  from  the 
manufacturer  with  the  assurance  that  each  and  every  length  so  pur- 
chased and  labeled  has  been  tested  by  Laboratories'  engineers  at  the 
factory  where  it  is  made  and  that,  therefore,  the  product  delivered  to 
the  city  may  be  accepted  with  assurance  that  it  is  what  it  should  be. 

This  is  only  one  of  the  cases  in  which  the  work  of  Laboratories 
affects  not  only  the  insurance  companies,  but  contributes  directly  to  the 
advantage  of  municipalities  and  their  officials  and  citizens. 

Probably  the  most  important  and  certainly  the  most  dramatic  of 
the  tests  conducted  by  Underwriters'  Laboratories  are  those  of  fire 
tests  on  doors,  windows,  partitions,  and  the  other  elements  of  building 
construction.    No  dependence  is  placed  upon  inert'  examination  of  sam- 


19 

pies  of  materials  ;  doors,  windows  and  partition  materials,  and  floors 
are  tested  in  furnaces  under  conditions  as  nearly  as  possible  identical 
with  those  to  be  found  in  buildings.  The  actual  door  or  window  in  full 
size  is  tested.  Partitions  and  floors  are  tested  in  large  panels.  The 
equipment  is  such  that  the  degree  of  heat  applied  can  be  accurately  de- 
termined and  repeated  over  and  over. 

A  fire  door,  for  instance,  is  mounted  in  a  brick  wall  which  forms 
the  front  of  a  gas-heated  furnace.  For  an  hour,  two  hours,  four  hours, 
as  the  case  may  be,  the  door  is  subjected  to  gradually  increased  heat 
from  the  roaring  gas  flames  until  it  is  as  severely  punished  as  it  would 
likely  be  in  any  conflagration.  It  may  become  white  hot  during  this 
test  and  any  latent  weakness  in  its  construction  or  materials  is  fairly 
sure  to  be  developed. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  Are  test  a  stream  of  water,  such  as  a  fire- 
man might  use  from  a  hose  line,  is  played  upon  the  sample  to  still 
further  develop  any  weaknesses  of  construction  or  design. 

Witnessing  one  of  these  tests  makes  one  realize  that  Laboratories 
are  not  dealing  with  theory  only,  but  depend  chiefly  upon  tests  and 
severe  tests  at  that. 

Other  great  furnaces  in  Laboratories  provide  for  lire  tests  of 
floors,  partitions,  building  columns,  safes,  and  the  like. 

The  comparative  values  of  roofing  materials  are  determined  by 
tests  where  roof  decks  are  covered  with  the  material  under  test,  exposed 
to  fires  from  gas  flames,  from  burning  brands  and  from  radiant  heat, 
while  a  strong  wind  is  blown  over  the  test  sample  as  might  occur  on  the 
roof  of  an  actual  building. 

The  department  of  gases  and  oils  is  constantly  engaged  in  in- 
vestigations of  a  great  variety  of  devices  which  are  nowadays  used  for 
storing,  distribution,  and  dispensing  gasoline,  oil  and  other  hazardous 
liquids.  Here  again  the  tests  are  all  on  actual  full  sized,  commercial 
samples  under  the  most  severe  conditions  of  use  which  can  be  antici- 
pated. 

Three  ranges  of  furnaces  are  constantly  employed  in  the  testing 
of  oil  burners  both  for  house  and  for  industrial  purposes.  This  is  a 
comparatively  new  development  which  has  gone  forward  very  rapidly 
and  the  necessity  of  positive  information  as  to  the  hazards  and  safe- 
guards for  such  heating  and  power  plants  is  apparent  to  everyone  who 
has  given  the  matter  even  the  slightest  consideration. 

in  the  electrical  field  the  endless  variety  of  both  standard  and  spe- 
cial materials  entering  into  electric  lighting,  heat  and  power  are  con- 
stantly under  examination  and  test  in  accordance  with  standards  which 
have  been  evolved  through  many  years  in  cooperation  with  the  elec- 
trical industries. 

The  chemical  department  is  engaged  in  researches  of  a  great  va- 
riety, pome  of  them  dealing  with  the  chemical  aspects  of  articles  under 
investigation  by  other  Laboratories'  departments  and  many  others  with 
special  problems,  such  as  spontaneous  combustion,  explosion,  propa- 
gation of  flame  through  pipes  and  other  vessels,  and  in  researches  on 
special  hazards  which  are  contantly  developing  in  industrial  processes 
in  a  great  variety  of  arts  and  industries. 


20 

In  all  of  its  work.  Laboratories  is  interested  not  only  in  safety  from 
lire  hazards,  but  equally  with  questions  of  safety  to  persons.  The  acci- 
dent hazard  thus  becomes  an  important  part  of  every  investigation  as 
well  as  the  primary  object  of  work  on  safety  devices  themselves.  More 
recently  Laboratories  has  extended  its  operations  into  the  automobile 
field,  both  the  machines  as  a  whole  and  accessories  of  every  sort,  and 
has  also  a  large  and  active  department  dealing  with  questions  of  burglar 
alarm  systems  and  related  devices.  These  have  an  insurance  interest 
of  their  own,  but  as  they  do  not  so  directly  affect  the  ordinary  hre 
hazard  I  will  not  describe  them  at  length  here. 

While  it  is  important  that  we  should  have  definite  and  reliable  in- 
formation about  materials  and  devices  as  determined  by  tests  originally 
made  on  the  products  a.^  they  a^e  submitted  by  the  manufacturer,  it  is 
quite  as  important  for  the  insurance  companies,  the  purchasers  and  in- 
specting authorities  of  both  underwriters  and  municipalities  to  know 
that  the  articles  which  are  made  and  offered  for  sale  day  by  day  con- 
tinue to  be  safe  and  reliable.  It  is  one  thing  to  test  a  sample  and  quite 
another  thing  to  know  that  day  by  day,  month  by  month,  and  year  by 
year  the  quality  and  safety  of  the  article  continues  essentially  un- 
changed. 

For  this  reason  Laiderwriters'  Laboratories  from  the  beginning  has 
supplemented  its  original  searching  tests  by  a  system  of  supervision  and 
inspection,  follow-up  we  call  it.  In  hundreds  and  hundreds  of  fac- 
tories scattered  from  one  end  of  the  country  to  the  other,  the  inspectors 
of  Lnderwriters'  Laboratories  are  daily  subjecting  the  products  of 
these  factories  to  re-tests  carefully  designed  to  determine  that  the 
daily  product  continues  up  to  standard. 

The  evidence  of  compliance  with  such  standards  is  the  well  known 
label  of  Underwriters'  Laboratories  which  is  an  evidence,  first,  that  the 
manufacturer  has  shown  that  he  can  make  the  standard  article  of  its 
class,  second,  that  he  has  done  so,  and  third  and  quite  as  important 
as  either  of  the  others,  that  his  goods  have  been  supervised  by  Labora- 
tories' inspector  and  found  to  be  of  continuing  standard  quality.  The 
label  is  evidence,  therefore,  not  only  of  quality,  but  of  inspection,  per- 
sistent, efficient  and  reasonable.  Its  value  to  the  manufacturer,  to  the 
buyer,  and  to  the  city  authority  is  very  great.  Its  expense  is  so  small 
as  practically  to  affect  the  selling  price  of  the  goods  not  at  all.  Mil- 
lions of  such  labels  are  used  annually  by  American  manufacturers 
and  their  recognition  by  purchasers  and  by  underwriting  and  munici- 
pal authorities  is  the  best  and  most  widely  available   form  of  security. 

A  few  concrete  illustrations  of  how  this  works  out  will  perhaps 
make  the  value  of  this   factor}'  inspection  and  label   service  clearer. 

Rubber-covered  wire  is  universally  used  in  our  buildings  and  is 
produced  by  some  forty-five  manufacturers,  large  and  small,  scattered 
throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Rubber  is  an  organic  ma- 
terial which  must  be  combined  with  minerals  and  some  other  materials 
in  proper  proportions  to  produce  a  substance  which  will  be  at  once. 
strong,  waterproof,  and  of  highly  electrical  insulation.  If  too  little 
rubber  is  used  or  the  manufacturing  process  goes  wrong,  you  may  find 


•21 

in  the  walls  of  your  building  wires  which  will  become  in  a  short  time 
positively  dangerous. 

At  the  wire  factory  the  Laboratories'  inspector  makes  constant 
physical  and  electrical  tests  of  the  product  day  by  day  and  at  Chicago 
chemists  are  repeatedly  analyzing  samples  collected  from  the  various 
factories  to  determine  the  quality  of  the  rubber  insulation  and  the 
strength  and  integrity  of  the  cotton  braids  or  other  materials  which 
make  up  the  finished  wire.  Any  failures  observed  are  immediately  re- 
ported to  the  manufacturer  and  to  the  local  inspector  and  made  the 
subject  of  investigation  at  the  factory  and  corrected  as  promptly  as  may 
be  possible.  Meanwhile  product  showing  such  defects  is  rejected  for 
labeling. 

A  very  similar  process  applies  to  fire  hose,  only  in  this  case,  as  has 
been  indicated  above,  each  and  every  length  of  hose  is  tested  at  the 
factory  for  bursting,  strength,  elongation,  twisting,  kinking,  and  other 
physical  properties,  and  chemical  and  physical  analyses  constantly  keep 
track  of  the  materials  employed  and  the  methods  of  fabricating  and 
assembling  them. 

At  the  factory  where  sprinkler  heads  are  made  are  elaborate,  deli- 
cate sets  of  gauges  which  the  manufacturer  constantly  uses  under 
Laboratories'  supervision  and  which  Laboratories'  inspector  periodic- 
ally employs  himself  to  determine  that  each  and  every  part  of  the 
sprinkler  head  is  properly  made,  finished  and  assembled.  Here  again 
variation  beyond  certain  narrow  limits  entails  immediate  investigation 
and  correction. 

While  fire  doors  are  being  put  together  in  hundreds  of  factories. 
Laboratories'  inspector  reviews  the  process,  gauges  the  metal  employed, 
reviews  the  choice  of  lumber  selected  for  the  tin-clad  doors,  and  in 
many  other  details  insures  by  first  hand  inspection  and  knowledge 
that  the  door  or  window  is  standard  and  may,  therefore,  be  depended 
upon  in  the  fire  emergency  for  which  it  alone  is  designed  to  perform  its 
useful  purpose  of  confining  the  fire  within  the  room  or  building  where 
it  starts  or  of  preventing  the  entrance  of  fire  into  a  building  from 
another  nearby. 

Week  in  and  week  out  this  detailed  inspection  in  hundreds  of 
factories  is  going  on  quietly,  unobtrusively  and  effectively.  The  evi- 
dence of  it  is  in  the  label  on  the  goods  or  in  the  listing  of  the  device  in 
one  of  the  numerous  pamphlets  published  by  Laboratories  and  given 
wide,  free  distribution  to  all  who  are  interested  in  fire  protection. 

To  the  buying  public  and  city  authorities  all  the  results  of  these 
very  far-spread  activities  of  Laboratories  in  testing,  inspecting,  and 
the  maintenance  of  standards  are  available  without  cost  and  it  is  largely 
on  this  score  that  the  Laboratories  bases  its  claim  to  be  an  institution 
for  public  service. 

In  recent  years  we  have  seen  a  change  of  emphasis  in  the  duties 
of  fire  departments.  We  used  to  think  of  a  fire  department  chiefly,  if 
not  solely,  as  an  organization  which  upon  receipt  of  an  alarm  rushed 
to  the  fire  and  by  heroic  and  dramatic  efforts  put  it  out  as  promptly 
as  possible.  This  is  still  a  most  important  part  of  a  fire  department's 
duties,  but  we  are  gradually  learning  the  wisdom  of  employing  in   lire 


departments  devoted  and  trained  men  for  the  prevention  of  fires  as  well 
as  for  their  extinguishment.  The  fire  department  today  which  is  not 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  building  conditions  in  its  town  and 
which  does  not  conduct  regular,  persistent  inspections  for  the  improve- 
ment of  conditions  and  removal  of  hazards  cannot  claim  to  be  a  mdern 
or  an  efficient  department. 

In  such  fire  prevention  inspections  many  problems  come  up  re- 
garding the  quality,  safety,  and  reliability  of  building  materials  and 
equipment  of  every  sort  and  of  fire  fighting  appliances  such  as  alarm 
systems,  extinguishers  and  the  like.  The  technical  problems  involved 
reach  out  into  every  science  and  individual  art  and  are  not  generally 
capable  of  being  answered  either  by  mere  inspection  of  the  things  them- 
selves or  from  the  necessarily  limited  knowledge  and  experience  of 
the  fire  chief,  his  inspectors,  or  the  city  officials.  It  is  in  this  field 
especially  that  the  work  of  Underwriters'  Laboratories  may  be  made 
of  service  to  the  fire  department  and  to  the  city.  Its  lists,  its  labels 
and  its  technical  information  are  constantly  available  and  freely  given. 

Many  fire  chiefs  and  city  departments  constantly  apply  to  Labora- 
tories for  information  of  this  character  and  utilize  it  to  the  very 
greatest  advantage,  confident  that  the  opinions  expressed  are  those  of  a 
disinterested,  non-commercial  institution,  whose  only  concern  is  to 
improve  conditions  of  fire  safety  and  advance  the  cause  of  fire  pro- 
tection. 

I  conceive  it  to  be  the  purpose  of  this  short  course  in  fire  preven- 
tion, control  and  extinguishment,  generously  and  wisely  provided  by 
the  University  of  Illinois,  to  assist  in  the  education  of  all  who  are 
concerned  in  problems  of  safety  in  our  state  and  cities.  Other  speakers 
will  deal  with  a  wide  variety  of  problems  of  concern  to  you  each  in 
his  special  field.  The  arts  of  preventing  fires  and  fighting  them  in- 
clude enough  to  tax  the  intelligence  of  the  best  of  us  and  any  man  may 
find  in  this  field  full  scope  for  all  of  his  abilities  and  for  the  per- 
formance of  wrork  of  the  highest  grade  of  public  value. 

J n  closing  this  brief  account  of  the  place  of  Underwriters'  Labora- 
tories in  fire  protection,  I  ask  you,  as  you  listen  to  the  other  speakers 
and  as  you  continue  in  your  professional  life  and  at  home,  to  remember 
constantly  that  before  any  fire  starts  there  must  be  something  to  burn 
and  that  after  it  starts  you  must  use  one  or  another  form  of  manufac- 
tured articles  in  the  process  of  putting  it  out.  In  other  words,  at  the 
basis  of  fire  protection  must  lie  a  sound  and  real  knowledge  of  the 
materials  and  construction  of  buildings  and  their  contents;  a  correct 
understanding  of  the  hazards  which  are  introduced  into  those  build- 
ings in  their  equipment  and  the  processes  which  are  carried  on,  and. 
finally,  a  reliable  and  unquestionable  knowledge  of  the  apparatus  which 
we  must  use  to  confine  or  extinguish  the  lire. 

It  is  on  these  basic  problems  that  Underwriters'  Laboratories 
works,  lis  tests,  inspections,  and  standards  are  designed  as  a  funda- 
mental and  necessary  basis  for  the  light  against  lire,  all  of  which  in- 
formation and  service  are  at  the  disposal  of  anyone  who  can  use  them 
and  that  the  knowledge  and  utilization  of  this  service  should  be  as 
general  and  universal  as  possible. 


23 

I  shall  ask  to  show  a  very  few  pictures  which  will  illustrate  some 
of  the  equipment  we  have  on  Ohio  street  in  Chicago  and  give  you  a 
little  more  idea,  perhaps,  of  the  character  of  the  plant.  I  repeat  my 
invitation  to  everyone,  individually  and  collectively,  to  come  and  see 
us  ;  we  can  give  you  an  interesting  half  hour,  probably  an  interesting 
half  day  and  I  think  an  interesting  day.  I  thank  you  very  much.  (Ap- 
plause.) 

Chairman  Palmer:  We  will  now  adjourn  until  1:30  o'clock 
this  afternoon. 


TUESDAY,  JUNE  16,  AFTERNOON  SESSION 

John  G.  Gamber,  State  Fire  Marshal,  Chairman 


The  time  has  arrived  to  start  the  afternoon  session.  I  want  to 
suggest  first  that  if  anyone  here  has  not  registered,  please  register 
so  we  can  get  your  name  upon  the  records.  We  are  going  to  publish 
the  proceedings  and  anyone  that  is  not  registered  is  likely  to  be  missed 
in  mailing  the  proceedings,  so  kindly  register  and  give  your  full  name 
and  address. 

The  first  topic  for  this  afternoon  is  Fire  Prevention  and  Building 
Construction.  The  speaker  who  is  going  to  take  this  topic  up  is  a 
young  man  I  have  known  for  a  great  many  years.  In  fact  I  got  very 
well  acquainted  with  him  through  the  young  lady  he  married,  who  told 
me  all  about  him  before  she  married  him  and  asked  my  advice  about 
him.  I  recommended  him  highly,  after  giving  him  the  once-over,  and 
he  has  made  good  in  the  work  he  has  taken  up.  I  have  the  extreme 
pleasure  of  presenting  Raymond  T.  Nelson,  engineer  of  the  Western 
Actuarial  Bureau,  Chicago.     (Applause.) 

FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  BUILDING  CONSTRUCTION 

B\r  Raymond  T.  Nelson,  Engineer,  Western  Actuarial  Bureau, 

Chicago 

I  hope  you  gentelmen  will  not  be  disappointed  in  my  remarks 
after  what  Mr.  Gamber  has  said  concerning  myself.  Personally  I 
am  not  used  to  being  complimented  so  highly  and  I  surely  want  to 
thank  him.  This  is  the  first  time  I  have  ever  been  officially  accused 
of  being  an  engineer.  It  is  true  I  went  to  an  engineering  school,  but 
it  so  happens  everybody  who  goes  through  an  engineering  school 
is  not  an  engineer,  and  I  happen  to  be  one  of  the  few  who  cannot 
qualify. 

You  men  are  more  or  less  acquainted  with  the  operation  of  a 
relay  team.  Whether  in  a  track  meet,  swimming  meet,  or  any  other 
athletic  activity,  you  know  there  are  four  jobs  that  call  for  "pinch 
hitters",  and  these  men  have  very  difficult  jobs  to  perform.  The  first 
man  has  to  take  the  mark  and  set  the  pace,  while  each  succeeding  man 
has  to  attempt  to  do  something  better  in  order  to  win.     This  morn- 


24 

ing  Mr.  Gamber  talked  to  you.  as  did  Mr.  Pierce  and  the  doctor  from 
the  university.  My  position  on  this  relay  team,  number  four,  is  a 
rather  difficult  place,  inasmuch  as  I  cannot  lose  ground,  but  must 
keep  up  the  standard  already  set  in  order  to  go  through  to  the  finish. 
So  I  feel  I  am  in  a  more  or  less  embarrassing  position,  having  followed 
these  men,  and  I  trust  that  I  will  not  lose  any  ground,  for  I  will  try 
to  follow  the  pace  that  they  have  set. 

Have  you  gentlemen  ever  thought  of  the  general  subject  of  Fire 
Prevention  and  Building  Construction,  and  if  so  have  you  ever  con- 
sidered how  much  thought  the  average  individual  gives  to  the  building 
he  occupies  as  long  as  it  satisfactorily  serves  the  purpose  for  which 
it  is  being  used? 

A  week  ago  last  Saturday  I  stopped  in  to  see  Captain  Healy,  of  the 
Rogers  Park  hre  station  in  Chicago.  I  sought  him  out  purposely  to 
ask  this  question,  as  to  how  much  thought  the  average  individual 
gives  to  the  building  he  occupies  as  long  as  it  satisfactorily  serves 
its  purpose  and  Captain  Healy  answered  me  in  practically  the  same 
terms  that  several  other  people  have,  and  by  the  way  Captain  Healy 
is  well  qualified,  inasmuch  as  he  is  the  oldest  active  member  of  the 
Chicago  city  hre  department.  He  said,  "very  little".  Following  this 
answer  I  asked  why  so  little  attention  was  given  to  the  buildings  and 
a  reply  came  from  him  similar  to  one  I  have  received  from  several- 
others,  and  you  undoubtedly  have  asked  the  same  question  from  time 
to  time.  "Why?" 

We  are  living  in  a  most  peculiar  age.  an  age  where  production 
and  time  rule  beyond  all  other  things.  Every  year  production  must 
be  perfected  to  an  almost  ideal  state  in  order  to  meet  competition. 
In  perfecting  production  and  increasing  turnover  the  building  is  en- 
tirely disregarded  as  long  as  its  housing  facilities  suffice  and  then 
should  reconstruction  be  required,  the  cheapest  possible  building  is  put 
up.  Xo  expense  is  spared  on  machinery,  but  as  much  as  possible  is 
saved  upon  the  housing.  The  building  itself  does  not  actually  con- 
tribute towards  the  efficiency  of  the  machinery  contained  within  that 
structure.  I  am  speaking  more  of  our  mercantile  and  industrial  prop- 
erty than  dwelling  house  property  in  this  behalf,  but  the  same  thing 
applies  to  the  dwelling  as  any  other  structure. 

Very  few  people  consider  tire  seriously.  They  only  realize  the 
power  of  its  sting  when  it  befalls  them  and  then  its  memory  is  not 
long  lasting,  for  they  return  to  their  former  ways  and  trust  to  Divine 
Providence  to  protect  them.  This  is  more  true  relating  to  the  build- 
ing than  to  the  occupancy  itself.  Have  you  ever  read  reports  of  large 
tires  and  followed  it])  those  reports  as  to  how  the'  properties  were 
replaced?  Undoubtedly  if  you  have  you  have  found  that  the  build- 
ings were  put  in  practically  the  same  identical  manner  as  they  were 
lie  fore  the  conflagration. 

You  have  heard  of  the  Berkeley  conflagration  and  the  Berkeley 
conflagration  probably  illustrates  this  point  more  effectively  than  any 
ul her  we  have  had  to  deal  with,  for  in  the  heat  of  the  conflagration 
Berkeley  passed  an  anti-wooden  shingle  ordinance  and  practically  be- 
fore the  embers  were  cooled  repealed  it.  permitting  people  to  replace 


2r> 

their  roofs  with  the  same  material  which  caused  their  properties  to  be 
destroyed. 

Our  large  tires  have  demonstrated  certain  facts  which  must  not 
be  lost  sight"  of.  In  Baltimore.  San  Francisco  and  Japan,  the  only 
buildings  that  stood  in  the  path  of  the  fire  were  those  of  fire-proof  con- 
struction and  you  may  be  interested  to  know  the  only  buildings  which 
stood  the  earthquake  in  Japan  were  of  an  American  built  fire-resistive 
type.  It  is  true  they  were  seriously  damaged,  but  notwithstanding  this 
they  absorbed  the  shock  and  in  so  doing  stood  as  a  barrier,  thereby 
reducing  the  probable  spread  to  limits  far  beyond  where  the  lire  died 
out. 

Only  three  years  ago  in  Chicago  we  came  in  contact  with  an  illus- 
tration of  this  character  and.  had  the  Burlington  building  not  stood 
where  it  did,  no  one  can  tell  where  that  lire  would  have  gone  to  and  1 
may  say,  had  the  Burlington  building  not  absorbed  the  entire  lire  from 
the  Austin  building,  this  tire  would  have  been  one  of  the  greatest  con- 
flagrations we  have  ever  had. 

In  the  present  day  buildings  are  generally  classified  in  three  groups, 
the  fire-resistive  group,  more  commonly  known  as  fire-proof  ;  the  brick 
group ;  and  the  frame  group.  In  discussing  the  standards  applicable 
to  these  various  types  of  structures  I  believe  it  is  better  to  discuss  them 
more  from  the  standpoint  of  fire  insurance  standards  than  purely  struc- 
tural standards,  inasmuch  as  the  standards  the  insurance  companies 
have  adopted  are  solely  for  the  purpose  of  minimizing  the  spread  of 
fire.  We  have  individual  standards  which  deal  with  stress  and  strain, 
a  building  designed  to  carry  certain  loads,  and  the  standard  adopted 
by  the  fire  insurance  company  may  not  meet  the  requirements  for  which 
the  building  is  to  be  used.  \Ye  may  need  a  very  much  thicker  floor  in 
order  to  carry  the  load  to  which  the  floor  is  to  be  subjected,  but  from 
the  standpoint  of  fire  insurance  that  floor  need  not  be  over  four  inches 
thick  if  of  reinforced  concrete  or  six  inches  if  of  hollow  tile.  We  will 
discuss  this  from  that  point  of  view,  inasmuch  as  that  represents  the 
minimum  that  should  be  applied  in  order  to  stop  the  spread  of  the  tire. 
But  please  do  not  take  this  as  a  fact  that  the  floors  should  not  be  more 
than  the  specified  thickness,  as  the  thickness  should  be  varied  in  order 
to  carry  the  loads  to  which  the  floor  is  to  be  subjected,  the  thickness 
specified  in  the  illustrative  example  being  merely  the  minimum  require- 
ment. 

May  we  have  the  slides  please?  Three  classes  of  buildings  exist, 
the  fire-proof,  brick  and  frame.  In  order  that  we  may  understand 
the  various  types  of  structures,  the  first  thing  we  will  do  is  to  consider 
the  basic  definitions  of  each  type. 

Fire-proof  Buildings — Buildings  of  this  class  of  construction  are 
defined  as  those  having  masonry  exterior  walls  or   incombustible  ex- 
terior  walls   between   masonry   or   protected   metal    supports,    with    all 
floors  and  roof  of  fire-proof  construction. 
walls  with : 


26 

Brick  Buildings — Buildings  of  this  class  of  construction  are  de- 
fined as  those  having  masonry  exterior  walls  or  incombustible  exterior 
a.  All  floors  and  roof  combustible  or  incombustible. 
1).  All  floors  fire-proof,  but   with  a  combustible  or 
incombustible  roof  not  separated  from   top  story 
by  a  fire-proof  ceiling  conforming  to  the  require- 
ments for  fire-proof  floors,  or  from  basement  or 
lowest  floor  by  three  fire-proof  floors. 
Frame  Buildings — Buildings  of  this  class  of  construction  are  de- 
fined as  those  having  combustible  exterior  walls  with  combustible  or 
incombustible  floors  and  roof. 


27 


28 


Walls 


MASONRY    WALLS 


Definition:  Masonry  walls  are  defined  as  walls  of  brick  (including  hollow, 
sand-lime  and  concrete  brick),  stone,  concrete,  adobe,  hollow  concrete 
block  or  tile,  and  hollow  walls  of  block  construction. 


29 


A.2. 


MASONRY  WALLS 


\we/ 


30 

MASONRY    WALLS 

Requirements:      The   thickness   of   a    masonry   wall    is   dependent   upon   the   Class 
of  Occupancy,  the  Class  of  Wall,  and  the  Material  of  Wall. 
Class    of   Occupancy:     Occupancies     are     classified     as     Light     or     Ordinary. 
Light    Occupancies    consist    of    such    occupancies    as    banks,     churches, 
dwellings,   libraries,  offices,   etc.      For  a   complete   list,   see  the   "Analytic 
System."      All   occupancies   not   classified   as   Light  are    considered    Ordi- 
nary   Occupancies. 
Class  of  Wall:      Walls  are  classified  as  Independent,  and  Party   or  Division 
Walls,    these    in    turn    being    subdivided    into    Bearing    and    Non-Bearing 
Walls. 

An  Independent  Wall   is  any  wall  other  than   a  Party   or  Division  "Wall. 
A  Party  or  Division  Wall   is   a   wall   common   to   two   or    more   buildings 

on  one  or  more  Poors. 
A   Bearing   Wall   is   a   wall    which   supports    any    load    in    addition   to   its 

own   weight. 
A   Non-bearing    Wall    is    a    wall    which    supports   no    load    in    addition   to 
its   own    weight. 

REQUIREMENTS  FOR  BRICK  WALLS 
In  the   following   table,   two  sets  of  figures  are   found,   Light   Face   and   Bold 
Face,   designating   the   thicknesses   required   for    brick   walls   of   varying   heights. 
Preceding   this    table    appears    a    key    which    outlines    the    requirements    applying 
for  each  combination  of  Class  of  Occupancy  and  Class  of  Wall. 

Key 
f  Light  Occupancy  J  Bearing  ^  Light  Face 

Independent        J  I  Non-bearing       iFigures 

Wall  1  /Non-bearing       I  Fi&-  1- 

Ordinary  Occupancy  (.Bearing 


Bold  Face 


[Light  Occupancy  ("Bearing 

Party   or   Div-       J  I  Non-bearing      [-Figures 

ision     Wall  ]  /Bearing  Fig.  2. 

(^Ordinary  Occupancy  \  Non-bearinj 

MINIMUM    THICKNESS 

Stories 

Stories  1  2  3  4  I  f;  7  8  9         10 

One  story /  j J 

Two   stories /  ^ 

Three    stories /  lj» 

I  16 
1 

20 
20 


Four  stories {  V- 

Five  stories /  20 

I  20 

Six    stories /  ^n 

\  24 


Seven  stories 


1-24 

\  24 

23 


Eight  stories /  ^ 

t  28 

Nine   stories /  -s 

\  28 

Ten   stories i  -s 

\  32 


12 

12 

12 

12 

16 

12 

16 

12 

12 

16 

16 

12 

It; 

Hi 

12 

12 

20 

16 

16 

12 

20 

16 

16 

12 

12 

20 

20 

16 

16 

12 

"ii 

■'ii 

16 

16 

12 

12 

24 

20 

20 

16 

16 

12 

24 

20 

20 

16 

16 

12 

12 

24 

24 

20 

20 

16 

16 

12 

24 

24 

20 

20 

16 

16 

12 

12 

28 

24 

24 

20 

20 

16 

16 

12 

28 

2  1 

24 

20 

20 

16 

16 

12 

12 

28 

28 

24 

24 

20 

20 

16 

16 

12 

Party  or  Division  Walls:      In  addition  to  the  requirements  given  above. 

Party  or  Division  walls  should  not  be  less  whan    16   inches   thick  on 

top  story  common  to  both  buildings  nor  less  than  20  inches  thick  on 

any   story   below   common    to   both    buildings.      (Fig.   ::.) 

Material    of   Walls:     The    following    modifications    in    the    requirements    for 

brick    walls  should   be   mad.'   for   each    material: 

Reinforced  Concrete  Walls:  Thickness  should  not  be  less  than  two- 
thirds    of    that    specified    for   brick    walls:    minimum    8    inches. 

Stone  or  Concrete  (not  reinforced)  Walls:  Thickness  should  be  4 
inches  greater   than   that    specified    for   brick    walls. 

Hollow  Concrete  Block  or  Tile  Walls  or  Hollow  Walls  of  Block  Con- 
struction: Thickness  should  be  I  inches  greater  than  that  specified 
for  brick  walls,  [f  faced  on  both  sides  with  l  inches  or  on  one  side 
with  8  inches  of  brick,  such  walls  should  be  considered  the  equiva- 
lent  of  brick   walls. 

Hollow  Brick  and  Sand-Idme  Brick  Walls  (approximate  size  of  brick 
2i2x4x8  inches):  Thickness  should  be  the  same  as  that  specified 
for   brick    walls. 

Concrete  Brick  Walls  (approximate  size  of  brick  2i2x4x8  inches): 
Thickness  should  be  the  same  as  that  specified  for  stone  or  concrete 
(  not    re-in fore,  d  )    w  alls. 

Adobe  Walls:  Thickness  should  be  4  inches  greater  than  specified 
for    brick    walls. 


31 


A.2.b. 

+-    8 

«-  lc' 
<-  /6 

«- 

<-/6 

4- 

—  / '/'-» 

-,--. /  STOFtr 

2.   STORIES 

3 

4 

' 

* Zo  —^ 

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REQUIREMENTS 

FOR 
A50NRY     WALLS. 

V 

32 


PARAPET  AND  FENDER   WALLS 


Definitions: 

A  Parapet  Wall  is  that  portion  of  a  masonry  wall  which  extends  above 
the  roof  line  of  a  building. 

A  Fender  Wall  is  that  portion  of  a  masonry  wall  which  extends  beyond 
roof  structures  or  extensions. 

Requirements: 

A  Parapet  Wall  should  extend  not  less  than  18  inches  above  the  roof 
lines  of  the  building  except  when  within  20  feet  of  a  building  grad- 
ing Large  (see  table)  when  height  should  be  increased  to  36  inches. 

Note  1 :  When  two  buildings  of  unequal  height  adjoin,  the  facing  wall 
of  the  higher  should  be  considered  the  equivalent  of  the  parapet 
of  the  lower.  The  height  of  the  parapet  should  be  determined  ac- 
cording to  the  height  of  openings  in  the  facing  wall  of  the  higher 
above  the  roof  of  the  lower  or,  if  no  openings,  by  the  height  of  the 
facing  wall. 

Note  2:  When  roof  of  either  exposed  or  exposing  building  is  of  fire- 
proof or  incombustible  construction  or  when  roof  of  exposing  build- 
ing is  two  or  more  stories  lower,  unless  combustible  cornices,  eaves, 
or  roof  houses  project,  no  parapet  is  required. 


TABLE    OF    LARGE    BUILDINGS 


Construction 

Height 
in   Stories 

Ground  Floor  Area 

Classes   1   to   6 

Classes  7  to  10 

D 

1 

2 
3  or  higher 

8,000 

5,000 

All  Buildings 

5,000 

3,000 

All   Buildings 

B 

1 

2 

3 

4  or  higher 

12,000 

8,000 

5,000 

All  Buildings 

8,000 

5,000 

3,000 

All  Buildings 

Note  3:  When  a  story  exceeds  15  feet  in  height,  each  15  feet  or  greater 
part  thereof  in  excess  of  the  first  15  feet  should  be  treated  as  an 
additional  story.  When  such  a  story  extends  to  the  roof,  height 
should  be  measured  to  the  eaves. 

Note  4:  When  a  building  contains  exclusively  incombustible  contents, 
areas  in  above  tables  should  be  increased  one-half. 

Note  5:  Solid  Rows  under  9th  and  10th  classes  of  protection  should 
grade   Large  under  the  following  conditions: 

If  total  ground  floor  area  of  all  buildings  in  row  is  7,500  square 

feet   or   more   when    no    building    in    row    exceeds   one    story   in 

height. 

If  total  ground  floor  area  of  all  buildings  in  row  is  4,500  square 

feet  or  more  when  any  building  in  row  is  two  stories  in  height. 

If  any  building  in  row  grades  large. 

A  Fender  Wall  should  extend  not  less  than  18  inches  above,  except  as  pro- 
vided for  under  parapets,  and  not  less  than  36  inches  beyond  combus- 
tible roof  structures  or  extensions. 


33 


34 


FIRE    STOP    WALL 

Definition : 

A  Fire  Stop  Wall  is  a  fire  wall  subdividing  a  row  of  frame  buildings 
or  sections  of  frame  buildings  so  as  to  restrict  the  spread  of  fire. 

Requirement: 

Fire  Stop  Walls  should  be  of  masonry,  not  less  than  12  inches  thick, 
without  openings  or  with  all  openings  protected  by  doors  approved  for 
the  protection  of  openings  in  fire  walls  and  extend  at  least  36  inches 
above  the  roof  combs  and  36  inches  beyond  the  ends  of  the  building, 
or  have  a  T  extending  6  feet  on  each  side  of  the  walls  or  an  L  extending 
12  feet  on  one  side  of  the  wall. 


35 


36 


INCOMBUSTIBLE    WALLS 

Definition: 

Incombustible  walls  are  walls  of  metal,  metal  lath  and  plaster  and  (or) 
glass   or   any   other   incombustible   material   on   incombustible   supports. 

COMBUSTIBLE   WALLS 

Definition: 

Combustible  walls  are  walls  of  wood,  wood  iron  clad,  skeleton  iron  clad, 
brick  veneered,  brick  nogged,  or  any  combustible  or  incombustible  ma- 
terial on  combustible  supports. 


3? 


A.2.f. 


•cz^/'^cm/t'A^ 


veyneafEO  • 


D"  WALLS 

(COMBUSTIBLE) 


V 


38 


Roof  Openings 
skylights 

Skylights  should  be  constructed  of  wire-glass  set  in  metal  frames  or  of 
heavy  glass  set  in  metal  frames  and  protected  by  screens  of  No.  12  gauge 
wire  with  not  more  than  one  inch  mesh  supported  on  iron  frames  and  set 
not  lessthan  6  inches  above  the  glass. 

Note:  Skylights  over  masonry  elevator  or  stair  shafts  may  be  of  thin 
glass  set  in  metal   frames  and   protected  as  described   above. 


39 


-~* 


40 


VENTILATORS 

Slatted  or  other  ventilators  in  wall,  roof  houses,  etc.,  should  be  pro- 
tected by  heavy  screens  of  not  more  than  one-fourth  inch  mesh  or  provided 
with  windows  or  other  effective  means  of  preventing  the  access  of  sparks. 


41 


A.7b. 


42 


SCUTTLE   HOLES 

In  buildings  of  ordinary  construction,  scuttle  should  be  constructed  of 
metal  lath  and  plaster  on  angle  iron  frame,  or  double  battened  wood,  tin 
clad  on  the  outside,  tin  turning  over  lower  edge. 

Stair  or  permanent  ladder  should  be  provided.  If  ladder,  it  must  be 
fastened  to  the  scuttle  and  if  hinged  may  be  drawn  up  to  ceiling.  Rope 
ends  should  not  be  over  six  feet  above  floor. 


43 


44 


Courts 


INTERIOR  COURTS 

Definition:     An  interior  court  is  any  uncovered  area  within  a  building  en- 
closed on  all  sides  by  walls  of  the  enclosing  building. 

Requirements: 

Walls  should  be  of  cement  plaster  on  both  sides  of  metal  lath,  not  less 
than  2  inches  thick,  supported  on  iron  frame;  gypsum  blocks,  tile 
or  reinforced  concrete,  not  less  than  3  inches  thick;   or  brick. 

Openings  into  courts  should  be  protected  by  wire-glass  in  stationary, 
automatic  or  self-closing  metal  frames,  or  by  automatic  doors  or 
shutters  approved  for  the  protection  of  openings  in  vertical  shafts. 

Note:  If  court  pierces  only  one  floor  (and  roof)  and  is  20  feet  or 
more  in  both  dimensions,  or  if  court  pierces  more  than  one 
floor  (and  roof)  and  is  40  feet  or  more  in  both  dimensions,  re- 
quirement as  to  the  protection  of  openings  may  be  waived. 


45 


46 


EXTERIOR  COURTS 

Definition:  An  exterior  court  is  any  uncovered  area  within  a  building  en- 
closed on  all  but  one  side  by  walls  of  the  enclosing  building.  (Fig.  1.) 
Note:  The  junction  of  two  walls  forming  a  re-entrant  angle  should 
not  be  considered  as  forming  a  court  (Fig.  2)  except  in  the  case  of 
small  V-shaped  courts  (Fig.  3)  which  are  included  in  the  above 
definition. 

Requirements: 

The  same  requirements  that  apply  to  exterior  walls  should  apply  to 
court  walls.     (See  Masonry  Walls.) 

Openings:  If  court  is  enclosed  on  all  sides  by  walls,  either  of  the  build- 
ing of  which  the  court  forms  a  part  or  by  walls  adjoining  buildings, 
openings  into  court  should  be  protected  by  wire  glass  in  stationary, 
automatic  or  self-closing  metal  frames,  or  by  automatic  doors  or 
shutters  approved  for  the  protection  of  openings  in  vertical  shafts. 

Note:  If  court,  enclosed  on  all  sides,  pierces  only  one  floor 
(and  roof)  and  is  20  feet  or  more  in  both  dimensions,  or  if  court 
pierces  more  than  one  floor  (and  roof)  and  is  40  feet  or  more 
in  both  dimensions,  requirements  as  to  the  protection  of  open- 
ings may  be  waived. 


47 


A.ftb. 


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cr 
o 


o 


/    en 


x 


48 

Floor  and  Roof  and  Supports 
fireproof  floors  and  roofs 

Definitions:  Fireproof  floors  or  roofs  are  floors  or  roofs  constructed  of 
brick  or  tile  arches,  reinforced  concrete  slabs,  reinforced  concrete  slabs 
with  reinforced  concrete  joists,  or  reinforced  concrete  joists  and  tile 
on  incombustible  supports. 

Note  1 :  Combustible  floor  surfacing  does  not  affect  the  grading 
of  a  floor,  except  that  when  earth  or  other  fireproof  floors  laid 
directly  on  earth  have  combustible  floor  surfacing  with  air  space 
beneath,  they  should  class  as  combustible  floors. 

Requirements: 

Floors,  if  brick  or  concrete,  should  be  not  less  than  4  inches  thick,  or 
if  tile,  not  less  than  6  inches  thick.  Wood  floor  surfacing,  if  any. 
should  be  laid  on  nailing  strips  embedded  in  incombustible  ma- 
terials with  no  air  space  beneath. 

Floor  Supports  should  be  of  materials  other  than  stone,  concrete  (not 
reinforced)  hollow  concrete  block  or  tile,  and  unprotected  steel. 

If  supporting   columns,   girders,   trusses   and   beams   are    steel    or 
reinforced  concrete,  or  if   floor  and   roof  slabs   are   reinforced   con- 
crete, all   steel  work  and  reinforcing  bars   should   be  protected  ac- 
cording to  the  following  minimum  requirements: 
Material:      Only    brick,    concrete,    burned    tile    or    other    materials, 
which,   upon   test,    show   equal   value,    should   be   considered   as 
fireproofing;    thickness   of  plaster  should   not   be   considered  in 
determining  the  thickness  of  fireproofing. 

Thickness  of  Fireproofing: 

Metal   Supporting   Members: 

Columns:  Columns  built  in  or  supporting  exterior  walls. 
4  inches. 

Note    2:      When    fireproofing    consists    of    reinforce:! 
concrete,  thickness  may  be  reduced  to  3  inches. 
Interior  Columns,  3  inches. 

Note  3:  Interior  columns,  constructed  of  steel  or 
wrought  iron  pipe  filled  solidly  with  concrete  may  be 
protected  by  a  minimum  of  iy2  inches  of  fireproofing. 

Horizontal  Supporting  Members:  Girders  and  all  members 
of  trusses,  built  in  or  supporting  exterior  walls;  on 
sides,  4  inches;  over  top  and  bottom  plates  and  flanges. 
2  inches. 

Note   4:      When    fireproofing    consists    of    reinforced 

concrete,  required  thickness  or  fireproofing  on   sides 

may  be  reduced  to  3  inches. 
Interior   girders,   trusses,   beams   and   other   supporting 

members   not   built    in   or  supporting   exterior   walls; 

on  sides  and  over  top  and  bottom  plates  and  flanges, 

2  inches. 

Reinforced  Concrete  Supporting  Members  and  Floor  or  Roof 
Slabs:  All  metal  reinforcing  in  reinforced  concrete  col- 
umns, girders,  beams  or  other  supporting  members  should 
be  protected  by  not  less  than  1  inch  of  concrete  or  its 
equivalent. 

All  metal  reinforcing  in  floor  or  roof  slabs  should  be 
protect cd  by  not  less  than  ::,  inch  of  concrete  or  its  equiv- 
alent. 


40 


A.  5. 


50 


INCOMBUSTIBLE   FLOORS   AND  ROOFS 

Definition:  Incombustible  floors  and  roofs  are  floors  and  roofs  constructed 
of  asbestos  board,  glass,  metal,  metal  lath  and  plaster,  concrete  on 
expanded  metal;  or  clay,  concrete  or  gypsum  tile  on  metal  ties  or  pur- 
lins;  on  incombustible  supports. 

Floors  or  roofs  constructed  of  concrete  on  expanded  metal  with  all 
supporting  columns,  beams,  or  girders  protected  by  fireproofiing  mater- 
ials equivalent  to  not  less  than  one-half  of  that  specified  under  the  pro- 
tection of  supports  for  fireproof  floors  and  with  all  metal  joists  on  floor 
slabs  protected  by  a  ceiling  of  cement  plaster  on  metal  lath,  may  be 
classed  as  Fireproof  Floors  or  Roofs. 


COMBUSTIBLE  FLOORS   AND  ROOFS 

Definition:      Combustible    floors   and   roofs   are   floors   or   roofs    of   wood    or 
incombustible  materials  on  combustible  supports. 

Requirements:      Combustible   floors   are   graded   according  to   their   type    of 
construction,    their    grades    being    designated,    for    convenience,    by    the 

letters  A,  B,  and  C. 

A.  Floors 

All  floors  not  conforming  with  the  requirements  for  B  or  C  as  described 
below.     (Fig.  1.) 

B.  Floors 

(Semi-Mill  Construction) 

Combustible  floors  not  less  than  3  inches  thick  (2%  inches  dressed) 
with  vertical  supports  of  wood  not  less  than  6x6  inches  and  with  horizontal 
supports  of  wood  not  less  than  4x6  inches,  or  with  vertical  or  horizontal 
supports  of  metal  not  protected  as  required  for  C  floors;  or  fireproof  or  in- 
combustible floors  on  metal  supports  not  protected  as  required  for  C  floors. 
(Figs.  2  and  3.) 

C.  Floors 

(Mill  Construction) 

Combustible  floors  not  less  than  4  inches  thick  (Zy2  inches  dressed) 
with  vertical  supports  of  wood  not  less  than  8x8  inches  and  with  horizontal 
supports  of  wood  not  less  than  6x6  inches,  or  with  vertical  and  horizontal 
supports  of  metal  protected  by  not  less  than  1  inch  of  plaster  on  metal 
lath;  or  fireproof  floors  on  metal  supports  protected  by  not  less  than  1  inch 
of  plaster  on  metal  lath.     (Figs.  2,  3  and  4.) 

Note:  Ceiling,  if  any,  of  top  story  should  be  graded  according  to  the 
construction  specified  for  floors,  except  that  a  ceiling  of  wood,  wood  lath 
and  plaster,  etc.,  may  be  considered  equivalent  to  a  floor  grading  A. 


51 


52 


Water-Tight  Floors 

Floor:     Floor  should  have  a  pitch  of  at  least  1  inch  to  each  20  feet. 

Waterproofing:  Floor  should  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  1  inch  rock  asphalt, 
or  have  two  layers  of  felt  with  a  coating  of  waterproof  compound  be- 
tween plies  and  on  top.  Wooden  overlay  should  be  laid  when  water- 
proof compound  is  hot. 

Flashing:  Felt  should  turn  up  at  all  posts  and  at  side  walls  at  least  6  inches 
and  be  protected  by  a  counter  flashing  of  galvanized  iron,  or  by  a 
wooden  base  board. 

Scuppers:  Scuppers  should  be  of  an  approved  type  anchored  in  walls  and 
be  spaced  not  more  than  20  feet  apart. 


53 


.5.d 


54 


Protection  of  Floor  Openings 
enclosed  openings 

This  type  of  enclosure  is  suitable  only  tor  floor  openings  in  buildings 
of  ordinary  construction. 

Enclosure  should  be  of  wood  lath  and  plaster  or  matched  flooring  not 
less  than  1  inch  thick  (%-inch  dressed)  with  all  openings  into  enclosure 
protected  by  automatic  or  self-closing  doors  of  matched  flooring  not  less 
than  1  inch  thick  (%-inch  dressed)  or  by  wire  glass  in  stationary  automatic, 
or  self-closing  metal  frames. 

Note:  The  above  type  of  enclosure  should  not  be  used  for  elevators 
(except  small  dumb  waiters)  passing  thru  more  than  one  floor. 


A  .6.  <x. 


50 


ENCLOSED    OPENINGS 

Enclosure  should  be  continuous  from  floor  to  floor  and  be  constructed 
so  as  to  meet  the  following  minimum  requirements: 

Partitions:  Partitions  should  be  of  cement  plaster  on  both  sides  of  metal 
lath,  not  less  than  2  inches  thick,  supported  on  iron  frame;  boiler  iron 
properly  riveted  and  framed;  gypsum  blocks,  tile,  or  reinforced  con- 
crete, not  less  than  3  inches  thick;    or  brick. 

Openings:  Openings  into  enclosure  should  be  protected  by  wire  glass  in 
stationary,  automatic  or  self-closing  metal  frames,  or  by  automatic  or 
self-closing  door  approved  for  the  protection  of  openings  in  vertical 
shafts. 


A. 


OrO 


^ 


58 


ENCLOSED    OPENINGS 

(Counter  Balanced  Elevator  Doors) 

Enclosure  should  be  continuous  from  floor  to  flcor  and  be  constructed 
so  as  to  meet  the  following  minimum  requirements: 

Partitions:  Partitions  should  be  of  cement  plaster  on  both  sides  of  metal 
lath,  not  less  than  2  inches  thick,  supported  on  iron  frame;  boiler  iron 
properly  riveted  and  framed;  gypsum  blocks,  tile,  or  reinforced  con- 
crete, not  less  than  3  inches  thick;  or  brick. 

Counter  Balanced  Door  Equipment:  Only  doors  and  hardware  approved  for 
the  protection  of  openings  in  vertical  shafts  should  be  used. 

Size:      Openings  should  not  exceed  8  feet  in  width  and  10  feet  in  height. 
Door  should  lap  sides  and  bottom  of  opening  at  least  2  inches, 
and  top,  3  inches. 

Sills  and   Lintels:      Should  be  standard. 

Guides:  Guides  should  be  mounted  on  inner  face  of  shaft  wall  at  sides 
of  opening  and  fastened  by  %-inch  thru  bolts  with  nuts  at  each  end 
and  spaced  not  more  than  18  inches  on  centers.  Bolt  holes  should 
be  slotted  and  guide  arranged  so  as  to  engage  door  in  each  side  at 
least  1  inch  with  i/>-inch  clearance  in  each  guide  for  lateral  expan- 
sion. 

Two  inches  should  be  allowed  between  units  for  clearance  and 
expansion. 


5!) 


INSTALLATION 


6  c. 


COUNTERB. 


GO 


OPENINGS    NOT    ENCLOSED 

(Stair  Trap) 

Size:  Door  should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  overlap  opening  on  all  sides  by 
not  less  than  1  inch. 

Trap:  Trap  should  be  of  matched  flooring,  not  less  than  2  inches  thick 
(1%  inches  dressed),  entirely  covered  with  tin  as  required  for  approved 
fire  doors. 

In  buildings  of  ordinary  joist  construction,  door  may  be  of  matched 
flooring  not  less  than  1  inch  thick  (%-inch  dressed)  covered  with  tin 
on  under  side.  Tin  should  be  securely  fastened  to  woodwork,  nail  heads 
being  covered  by  single  lock  joints.  Covering  should  lap  top  side  of 
trap. 

Hinges:     Hinges  should  be  heavy  wrought  metal  and  bolted  to  the  trap. 

Stop:  Stop,  to  prevent  door  being  raised  to  a  vertical  line,  should  be 
wrought  metal  and  bolted  either  to  door  or  wall. 

Door:     Door  should  be  arranged  to  close  automatically. 


61 


62 


OPENINGS    NOT    ENCLOSED 

(Elevator  Trap) 

Size:  Door  should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  overlap  opening  on  all  sides  by 
not  less  than  one  inch. 

Trap:  Door  should  be  of  matched  flooring  not  less  than  2  inches  thick  (1% 
inches  dressed)  entirely  covered  with  tin  as  required  for  approved  fire 
doors. 

In  buildings  of  ordinary  joist  construction,  door  may  be  of  matched 
floor  not  less  than  one  inch  thick  (%  inch  dressed)  covered  with  tin 
on  under  side.  Tin  should  be  securely  fastened  to  woodwork,  nail  heads 
being  covered  by  single  lock  joints.     Covering  should  lap  top  side. 

Openings  in  door  for  cables,  counter  weights,  etc.,  should  be  pro- 
vided with  automatic  flaps  of  same  construction  as  door. 

Hinges:      Hinges  should  be  of  heavy  wrought  metal  and  bolted  to  door. 

Closing:  All  doors  should  close  automatically  by  fusible  link  or  electrical 
attachment,  so  arranged  that  all  doors  on  one  shaft  will  operate  by  the 
fusing  of  any  one  link  or  by  thermostat. 

All  wires,  chains,  and  pulleys  and  weights  should  be  protected,  if 
necessary,  against  mechanical  injury,  by  guard  strips,  or  from  being 
rendered  inoperative  by  piling  stocks  or  other  materials  against  same. 


03 


64 


OPENINGS    NOT    ENCLOSED 

(Heating,  Ventilating  and  Conveyor  Pipes) 

Sleeve:      Sleeve  thru  floor  should  be  of  cast  iron  or  constructed  of  No.  14 
gauge  iron  or  steel  and  anchored  by  collar. 

Door:     Door  should  be  constructed  of  same  material  as  sleeve  pivoted  on 
bronze  pin  and  held  open  with  stranded  wire  or  chain  and  fusible  links. 

Weights  should  be  attached  to  door  to  insure  positive  closing. 

Painting:     Apply  two  coats  of  paint. 


65 


A. 6. 


INSPECTION   TRAP 


FUSIBLE  LINK 


BRONZE  PIN 


ROD  THRU    PIPE 
TO  PREVENT  DAMPER 
FROM  BEING  PUUfD 
5ACK   OF  VERTICAL 


FLOOR   SLEEVE, 
CONTAINING   DAMPER 


-AUTOMATIC     DAMPER- 
HEATING    AMD  VENTILATING    PIPE 
THRU   fLOOR 


(U> 


OPENINGS   IN    HALLS    OR    CORRIDORS 

Enclosure  should  be  continuous  from  floor  to  floor  and  constructed  so 
as  to  meet  the  following  minimum  requirements: 

Partitions  should  be  of  cement  plaster  on  both  sides  of  metal  lath  not  less 
than  2  inches  thick,  supported  on  iron  frame;  gypsum  blocks,  tile  or 
reinforced  concrete,  not  less  than  3  inches  thick;   or  brick. 

Openings  into  enclosures  should  be  protected  by  wire-glass  in  stationary, 
automatic,  or  self-closing  metal  frames,  or  by  automatic  or  self-closing 
doors  approved  for  the  protection  of  openings  in  corridors  or  partitions. 


C] 


A.6.h. 


68 


Exterior  Attachments 

All  exterior  attachments  to  fireproof  and  brick  buildings  should  be  of 
incombustible  construction. 

Cornices:  Cornices,  if  hollow,  should  not  be  continuous  with  adjoining 
buildings. 

Bay  Windows:  Bay  windows  should  conform  to  the  requirements  for  ex- 
terior walls. 

Walls:  Walls  of  roof  houses  with  floors  and  constituting  more  than  25% 
of  the  roof  area  or  more  than  800  square  feet  in  area  or,  with  or  with- 
out floors  and  more  than  one  story  in  height  should  conform  to  the  re- 
quirements for  exterior  walls. 


69 


70 

Chairman  Gamber:  If  anybody  desires  to  ask  any  questions  I 
am  sure  Air.  Nelson  would  be  glad  to  answer  them.  If  there  are  no 
questions  we  are  ready  for  the  next  speaker. 

The  next  subject  is  Exit  Facilities.  When  we  looked  around  for 
a  speaker  for  this  particular  subject  we  thought  we  would  go  to  the 
largest  city  in  the  state,  the  second  largest  city  in  the  United  States, 
where  they  have  more  experience  along  that  line  than  any  other  city 
in  the  state  and  we  asked  Fire  Commissioner  Connery  to  supply  us 
with  a  speaker.  Mr.  Connery  very  kindly  selected  his  fire  prevention 
engineer  of  the  fire  prevention  bureau  of  Chicago,  John  Plant,  who 
will  talk  to  us  on  Exit  Facilities.  Air.  Plant  suggests  that  this  might 
be  the  seventh  inning  and  you  might  stretch  a  little  bit  and  move 
around  if  you  want  to. 

(Short  recess  taken). 

EXIT  FACILITIES 
John  Plant,  Fire  Prevention  Bureau.  Chicago 

aIr.  Gamber  and  Gentlemen:  The  subject  assigned  to  me, 
Exit  Facilities,  might  be  talked  over  in  different  ways.  We  will  start 
with  the  Indian  wigwam.  When  the  Indian  had  his  wigwam  or  the 
settler  had  his  hut,  exit  facilities  were  everywhere.  All  he  had  to  do 
was  to  roll  out  under  the  canvas  and  he  was  out,  if  anything  hap- 
pened inside  the  room.  As  civilization  progressed  and  ground  became 
more  valuable  men  started  building  buildings  higher  rather  than  wider 
and  longer.  Thus  arose  the  necessity  of  getting  people  into  the  build- 
ing. That  is  the  predominant  idea  of  the  theatre  man  or  the  merchant, 
or  perhaps  everyone,  except  those  interested  in  safety, — to  get  the 
people  in  first  and  then  they  don't  care  particularly  whether  they  can 
get  out  or  not,  because  there  is  never  going  to  be  a  fire.  They  say — ■ 
the  place  has  been  up  thirty-five  years  and  never  burned  down,  so  don't 
ask  them  to  widen  the  exits  or  put  an  additional  fire  escape 
on.  I  have  in  mind  such  a  fire  escape  as  that  (indicating  a  ladder 
fire  escape).  Why  ask  any  human  being  other  than  an  able  bodied 
fireman  or  circus  acrobat  to  perform  on  that  in  zero/;  weather  with 
smoke  and  gas  issuing  from  the  building?  The  architect  works  very 
hard  and  spends  many  sleepless  nights  designing  a  building  so  it  will 
be  serviceable  and  useful,  and  so  that  the  proportions,  will  be  right. 
He  finds  the  height  is  out  of  proportion  with  the  width  and  the  orna- 
mental scrolls  over  the  doors  will  be  out  of  place;  but  after  it  is  all 
done  he  comes  along  and  tacks  on  a  tangled  mass  of  iron  in  the  shape 
of  a  ladder  or  stairway  and  calls  it  a  lire  escape.  This  is  a  notice  to 
the  whole  world  that  there  is  danger  in  the  building  and  that  some- 
one may  have  to  use  that  exit  to  get  out  of  the  building  in  order  to 
save  his  life  or  limbs. 

A  tire  escape  is  good  sometimes  as  a  means  of  attack  for  the 
firemen.  They  can  scramble  up  on  the  lire  escape  and  put  streams 
of  water  on  the  burning  material,  but  in  many  cases  it  is  no  means 
of  escape  for  the  occupants. 


71 

When  people  build  a  building,  regardless  of  the  type  of  con- 
struction, and  then  rill  the  inside  of  the  building  with  great  quantities 
of  combustible  contents,  with  large  undivided  areas,  tires  will  start 
in  the  most  unlooked  for  places  and  from  the  most  mysterious  causes, 
and  spread  with  the  rapidity  that  only  men  like  yourselves,  who  have 
been  trained  to  race  away  from  fire,  know  how  great.  With  the 
above  fact  in  mind,  you  will  agree  something  other  than  a  ladder 
fire  escape  or  stairway  fire  escape  should  be  counted  on  as  a  means 
of  egress  from  a  burning  building. 

But  it  is  a  most  difficult  thing  to  sell  this  idea  to  architect-.  They 
cannot  get  over  the  idea  of  building  a  building  and  tacking  a  fire 
escape  on  it.  I  will  cite  an  example.  In  Chicago,  on  the  northwest 
corner  of  Randolph  and  Madison  streets,  is  a  twenty-two  story  library 
building.  They  were  not  pressed  for  money  because  in  1891  Doctor 
Crerar  died  and  left  a  fortune  of  about  three  million  dollars  to  found 
a  library.  Today  the  resources  available  have  increased  very  much. 
They  built  a  most  beautiful  so-called  fireproof  building.  When  they 
got  the  twenty  or  twenty-two  story  building  constructed,  after  the 
architect  wasted  many  hours  of  sleep  and  perhaps  got  grey  hairs  de- 
signing correct  proportions,  they  tacked  on  two  masses  of  iron  bars 
called  a  fire  escape.  In  lieu  of  this  iron  stairway  fire  escape,  which 
will  rust  and  require  scrapings  and  paintings  and  thus  stain  the  beau- 
tiful stonework  on  the  front  of  the  building,  a  new  idea  in  exit  facili- 
ties could  have  been  used  on  the  building.  The  additional  expense 
would  not  have  been  great  and  the  cost  was  not  troubling  the  builders. 

This  new  idea  is  known  as  the  Philadelphia  smoke-proof  stair 
tower.  That's  the  outside  wall  of  the  building  ( indicating)  :  we  will 
count  that  partition  as  the  other  outside  wall;  we  would  bring  a  brick 
wall  to  this  column  and  a  brick  wall  straight  through,  leave  out  the  win- 
dow and  about  half  that  space  would  be  the  Philadelphia  smoke-proof 
tower.  Thus  your  stairway  is  entirely  surrounded  with  a  twelve  inch 
brick  or  concrete  wall.  In  order  to  get  in  that  stairway  you  must 
leave  the  building.  The  wall  comes  out  of  this  portion  here,  out  on 
the  back  porch,  if  you  please,  and  then  into  your  stair  tower. 

I  have  been  able  to  sell  that  idea  to  several  building  contractors 
and  architects  up  north.  The  enclosed  stair  tower  is  not  required  by 
law.  I  would  have  a  difficult  time  selling  it  to  the  law  makers.  Should 
I  try  to  sell  the  members  of  the  city  council  on  the  idea  of  eliminating 
fire  escapes  and  requiring  a  Philadelphia  stair-tower,  I  would  have 
a  difficult  job.  Imagine  a  building  without  a  fire  escape?  But  we 
have  better  than  a  fire  escape  in  the  Philadelphia  smoke-proof  stair 
tower.  Regardless  of  what  happens  within  the  building,  that  stairway 
is  one  hundred  percent  efficient  as  means  of  an  attack  for  the  fire 
department  and  one  hundred  percent  efficient  as  a  means  of  escape  for 
the  occupants  above-.  Once  off  of  one  floor  you  will  descend  down 
through  the  stairway  without  leaving  the  stair  tower  until  discharged 
into  the  alley  or  street.  That  sort  of  a  stairway  can  be  completely 
worked  out  and  incorporated  within  the  original  walls  of  the  building. 

To  get  away  from  the  fire  escape  i<  a  step  in  advance,  but  I  am 
telling  you   men   this  as   perhaps   you  might  come  in   contact    with   a 


72 

building  contractor  or  construction  men  who  may  be  in  a  position  to 
incorporate  the  idea  of  the  Philadelphia  smoke-proof  tower  in  some 
building. 

We  have  had  many  fires  in  which  there  was  a  loss  of  life.  I  know 
the  experience  of  this  year  alone,  in  three  fires,  one  in  which  there 
were  nine  lives  lost  in  a  four  story  building  having  two  flats  on  the 
first  floor,  two  flats  on  the  second  floor,  two  flats  on  the  third  floor  and 
two  flats  on  the  fourth  floor,  with  one  open  stairway  and  no  com- 
bustible contents  in  the  building  other  than  the  furniture  with  which 
the  people  carried  on  their  domestic  avocation.  Nothing  was  in  the 
corridors  perhaps  but  a  baby  carriage.  The  stairway  was  of  wood, 
the  banister  was  wood,  there  was  a  rug  on  the  stairs  and  corridors. 
If  a  fire  starts  on  the  first  floor  it  immediately  transforms  the  stair- 
way into  a  roaring  mass  of  flames  and  before  the  fire  department 
is  there  the  stairway  has  burned  away  and  fallen  into  the  basement. 
There  was  no  fire  in  the  basement,  but  the  stairway  collapsed  and 
the  people  on  the  upper  floors  never  had  a  chance  to  leave  their  rooms 
to  get  in  the  corridor.     You  recall  how  fast  fire  travels. 

We  had  a  case  in  the  hospital  for  the  blind  in  Chicago.  One  man 
lost  his  life  who  had  had  an  operation  performed  on  his  eyes  the 
previous  day.  The  reason  only  one  man  lost  his  life  was  because  there 
was  only  one  man  sleeping  in  the  building.  The  whole  side  of  the 
building  was  covered  with  an  iron  platform  with  access  to  a  very 
fine  stairway  fire  escape.  What  was  the  cause  of  that  loss  of  life? 
The  same  old  open  stairway  idea.  The  stairway  started  at  the  base- 
ment, with  no  inclosure  whatsoever,  and  within  50  feet  of  that  hos- 
pital were  two  companies  of  firemen  with  the  finest  kind  of  equip- 
ment, a  pumper  costing  $16,000,  an  85  foot  aerial  ladder,  and  twenty 
as  fine  men  as  you  can  wish  to  see  at  any  fire.  No  one  knew  the  fire 
started,  but  in  the  twinkle  of  an  eye  it  started  in  the  basement,  and 
went  to  the  open  stairway  and  traveled  upward,  and  the  loss  of  life 
occurred.  The  inside  stairway  was  48  inches  wide.  Every  window  on 
one  side  of  the  building  had  access  to  a  platform  fire  escape  and  yet 
that  fire  came  up  and  snuffed  out  the  life  of  the  poor  blind  man. 
The  fire  department  made  a  good  response  and  put  out  the  fire,  but 
could  not  save  the  life. 

In  buildings  of  that  kind  we  have  taken  it  upon  ourselves  to  try 
tc  sell  the  idea  of  enclosing  the  stairway  so  it  will  be  not  only  an 
exit  facility  when  the  emergency  arises,  but  that  the  fire  will  be  con- 
fined to  the  floor  where  it  starts  for  a  little  while  at  least. 

Fire-proof  construction,  as  you  perhaps  know,  does  not  mean 
you  are  safe  from  fire,  that  you  cannot  have  a  fire  if  the  building  con- 
tains combustible  contents,  and  the  building  does  not  have  to  be  heavily 
loaded  with  combustible  contents  either. 

Our  building  code  is  based  on  records  of  fires  and  loss  of  life, 
limning  up  into  the  hundreds,  especially  among  factory  workers,  girls 
and  women;  yet  we  have  not  been  able  to  sell  the  law  makers  in  our 
city  the  necessity  of  enclosing  stairways. 

As  a  sample  of  what  an  enclosed  stairway  accomplished,  let  me 
cite  the   following:     The   Burlington   building  is  a   fine  type  of   fire- 


proof  or  fire-resistive  construction.  By  the  use  of  that  term  I  do  not 
mean  you  cannot  have  a  fire,  but  it  is  as  fine  a  type  of  building  as 
can  be  found  anywhere.  It  is  superior  to  the  requirements  of  the  city 
code  and  I  believe  to  the  National  Board  code  on  building  construc- 
tion. Why  is  it  superior?  Because  all  stairs  and  elevator  shafts  are 
enclosed  in  walls  and  masonry  and  all  doors  are  metal  doors.  It  was 
used  as  an  office  building.  It  had  exterior  windows  fronting  on  the 
east  and  north  streets.  The  windows  were  of  ordinary  wood  sash  and 
glass.  The  exposure  from  the  neighboring  fire  was  not  severe,  because 
the  street  on  the  east  was  88  feet  wide  and  for  a  distance  of  110  feet 
the  building  was  exposed  by  a  two  story  building  and  only  by  a  six 
story  building  for  a  distance  of  about  60  feet.  Thus  its  total  length 
was  170  feet,  for  110  feet  it  was  exposed  by  a  two  story  building  and 
for  60  feet  it  was  exposed  by  a  six  story  building,  across  an  88  foot 
street.  The  wind  was  blowing  from  that  direction.  Had  the  Burling- 
ton building  been  subjected  to  a  severe  exposure  and  its  stairs  and 
elevator  shaft  not  been  enclosed  in  masonry,  I  fear  there  would  have 
been  floors  falling  in  the  Burlington  building. 

The  fire  department  entered  and  used  the  stairs  from  the  ground 
up.  The  standpipe  equipment  was  not  in  the  stairway  as  it  is  now. 
We  learned  something  at  that  fire,  namely  to  have  all  standpipes  in 
the  stair  towers. 

The  fire  department  is  never  called  when  things  go  as  they  should. 
When  the  finest  type  of  building  was  being  consumed  by  fire,  then  the 
fire  department  was  called.  Did  they  put  the  fire  out?  Xo.  They 
were  fortunate  to  stop  the  fire  in  the  building.  There  were  defects 
not  observed  before  the  fire.  When  the  firemen  did  get  to  the  open 
floor,  they  found  the  standpipe  was  inside  a  cabinet  and  the  hose  con- 
nection was  so  close  to  the  ceiling  it  could  not  be  reached.  \\  nen  they 
did  get  the  hose  on  the  standpipe  the  opening  on  the  standpipe  went 
to  the  side  of  the  hose  cabinet,  which  caused  the  hose  to  kink  and  little 
water  would  flow  through  the  hose.  The  boys  then  filled  the  cuspidors 
with  water  and  threw  the  water  on  the  burning  window  sash,  trying 
to  prevent  the  fire  from  entering. 

Those  are  the  facilities  given  the  fire  department  to  fight  the  fire 
that  never  was  supposed  to  happen  in  the  Burlington  building.  There 
are  many  other  exposures  in  other  cities  far  greater  than  the  exposures 
around  the  Burlington  building. 

There  is  another  thing  I  happened  to  think  of  when  the  man  spoke 
about  elevators  being  considered  as  a  means  of  exit.  Xot  from  our 
experience.  They  had  a  fire  pump  in  the  Burlington  building,  which 
our  men  state  did  not  operate.  It  is  alleged  that  when  the  fire  started 
the  engineer  had  gone  for  a  sandwich.  Perhaps  the  elevator  operators 
will  go  to  eat  when  the  fire  starts,  so  you  cannot  count  on  the  elevators. 

They  had  a  fire  at  the  Dunning  institution  and  a  little  nurse  girl 
told  a  world  of  facts  concerning  it.  This  little  nurse  girl  said  three 
things.  This  was  a  one  story  frame  building.  It  covered  a  large  area 
and  was  an  L  shaped  building  and  over  it  all  an  attic.  They  did  not 
have  even  a  pine  partition  for  a  fire  stop.  Exit  facilities  in  a  one  story 
building?        They   could   have   stepped    from   the    window   out   on   the 


74 

ground.  The  doors  opened  inward.  All  exit  doors  should  open  out- 
ward. The  little  girl  said  this:  "No  one  thought  it  would  come  so 
fast."  Next  she  said,  "The  lights  went  out."  The  lights  always  go 
out.  That  means  your  elevators  are  out,  being  electrically  driven. 
The  next  thing  she  said,  "The  place  filled  with  smoke  and  gas."  There 
were  the  three  things,  no  one  thought  it  would  come  so  fast;  next,  the 
lights  went  out  and  the  place  filled  with  smoke  and  heat.  Twenty-four 
people  lost  their  lives  and  they  were  not  helpless  people  either,  but  in 
full  possession  of  all  their  mental  faculties.  They  were  epileptics, 
that's  true,  but  in  possession  of  all  faculties  except  during  a  period  of 
mental  stress. 

In  the  Iroquois  fire  they  tell  you  the  people  died  because  exit  doors 
were  locked,  but  if  other  things  were  done  that  should  have  been  done, 
the  exit  doors  could  have  been  locked  and  the  people  could  have 
watched  the  material  on  the  stage  burn.  The  Iroquois  theatre  did  not 
burn,  the  contents  on  the  stage  of  the  theatre  burned  and  the  heat,  the 
smoke  and  the  gas  going  out  into  the  auditorium  did  the  damage. 
Many  people  never  left  their  seats  at  all.  What  difference  did  exit 
facilities  make  to  those  people.  Loss  of  life  in  a  theatre  has  always 
occurred  where  up  to  fifteen  feet  of  open  space  around  the  building- 
was  provided.  When  the  fire  starts  the  probability  is  it  is  not  going 
to  give  the  occupants  of  the  building  a  chance  to  get  to  the  exit  space. 

In  the  inspection  of  places  of  public  assembly  it  is  not  unusual 
to  find  exits  locked  or  obstructed.  \\  Tien  we  happen  to  see  a  few 
people  standing  in  the  aisles  it  is  not  considered  a  great  hazard,  but 
when  we  see  doors  put  in  as  means  of  egress  barred  and  bolted  or  loose 
obstacles  in  the  aisles  or  passageways  for  people  to  trip  on,  we  see  that 
it  is  rectified  immediately. 

In  our  city  it  is  provided  by  city  ordinance  exits  must  be  kept  free 
and  no  one  shall  be  permitted  to  stand  there,  but  before  the  exit  facil- 
ities come,  take  the  other  steps  to  eliminate  the  possible  chance  of  a 
fire  by  having  the  known  causes  of  fire  safeguarded.  Eliminate  from 
the  theatre  stage  the  chance  for  the  fire  to  start  by  having  the  scenerv 
fireproofed  before  it  is  used.  Provide  a  stage  vent  to  permit  the  im- 
mediate escape  of  smoke  and  gas.  Provde  a  steel  curtain  to  separate 
the  auditorium  from  the  stage.  Provide  automatic  sprinklers  and  give 
the  people  a  chance  to  use  the  exit  facilities  provided  by  the  architect. 

We  do  not  always  do  things  right  in  a  big  city.  Size  sometimes 
is  our  only  claim  to  fame.  Many  small  towns  have  good  ideas  in  their 
fire  departments  that  could  be  profitably  adopted  by  the  larger  cities. 

I  don't  know  that  there  is  anything  else  I  can  say  about  stairways 
and  exit  facilities.      1  would  be  glad  to  answer  any  question  at  all. 

DISCUSSION 

Mr.  Gibson,  Champaign:  I  would  like  to  ask  your  opinion  of  the 
horizontal  (ire  escapes? 

Mr.  Plant:  The  man  asks  my  opinion  of  a  horizontal  lire  escape. 
I  would  like  to  have  you  qualify  it.      Where  dnv±  it  lead  to? 

Mr.  Gibson:     To  another  building. 


75 

AIr.  Plant:     Through  another  building? 

Mr.  Gibson  :     Simply  through  a  brick  wall. 

Mr.  Plant:  Fine.  A  horizontal  exit  is  always  to  be  preferred 
to  a  vertical  exit.  Especially  is  that  true  of  a  school  or  hospital  where 
the  occupants  can  be  carried  or  marched  horizontally  out  of  danger. 

AIr.  Gibson  :     A  party  wall  balcony  for  an  escape. 

Mr.  Plant:     Balcony  fire  escapes? 

Mr.  Gibson  :  Yes,  one  window  on  one  side  of  the  wall,  including 
a  window  on  the  other  side  of  the  wall. 

Mr.  Plant:  In  such  as  a  home  for  the  aged,  incurables  or  chil- 
dren, a  horizontal  exit  is  ideal.  In  the  hospitals,  of  which  we  have  so 
many  three,  four  and  five  story  buildings  with  open  stairways,  which 
themselves  have  enough  combustible  material  to  create  sufficient  gas 
so  that  everybody  will  be  burned  to  death  and  each  patient  takes  at  least 
two  firemen  to  get  him  out  and  most  fire  departments  are  undermanned, 
horizontal  escapes  help  greatly.  If  the  occupants  have  to  be  lowered 
vertically,  it  is  a  big  problem.  It  is  sometimes  found  that  the  doors 
leading  to  the  fire  escape  are  so  narrow  they  will  not  admit  the  pas- 
sage of  a  bed.     This  creates  additional  dangers. 

AIr.  Rogers:  I  would  like  to  ask  your  opinion  of  this  new  tubu- 
lar fire  escape,  not  the  spiral,  but  the  straight  tube,  about  a  45  degree 
angle  ? 

Mr.  Plant  :  Yes,  providing  you  can  get  one  to  every  window  in 
the  institution. 

Mr.  Rogers:     I  mean  for  schools  particularly? 

Mr.  Plant:  No.  I  don't  think  we  should  put  up  a  building  so 
hazardous  and  compel  children  to  go  to  school  in  a  fire  trap  building. 
That  would  mean  they  would  have  to  exit  very  fast  from  the  building. 
You  don't  need  them  on  fire-proof  two  story  buildings.  Provide  them 
with  the  Philadelphia  smoke  tower. 

Mr.  Rogers  :  That's  all  right  on  buildings  to  be  erected,  but  what 
about  90  per  cent  of  the  public  schools  not  of  that  type  of  construction ; 
you  are  compelled  to  use  them. 

Mr.  Plant:  If  the  large  department  stores  in  Chicago  and  else- 
where and  factories  can  see  their  way  clear  to  protect  sausage,  socks, 
underwear,  etc.,  by  installing  an  automatic  sprinkler  system,  aren't 
the  lives  of  school  children  worth  as  much? 

Mr.  Rogers:  1  am  asking  your  opinion  of  the  building,  not  that 
type  of  construction. 

Mr.  Plant:     They  should  not  have  a  school  building  of  that  kind. 

Mr.  Rogers:  But  you  have  got  them  all  over  the  country.  Chi- 
cago is  full  of  them. 

AIr.  Plant:  They  should  not  permit  school  children  to  be  housed 
in  a  school  building  of  that  kind.  Here  is  a  fire  escape  on  a  building, 
notice  to  the  world  there  is  danger  in  the  building.  You  compel  them 
to  go  to  school  in  a  fire  trap  building.  Is  it  not  possible  to  get  a 
sprinkler  system  in  a  school  building?  The  merchant  protects  his 
shirts  and  underwear,  etc.,  with  a  sprinkler  system.  It  is  highly  in- 
consistent. Put  a  fire  escape  on  the  school  that  is  a  fair  fire  hazard, 
but  where  human  life  is  at  stake  in  a  fire-trap  building  they  should  go 


76 

beyond  the  mark  and  put  in  not  alone  exit  facilities,  but  sprinklers 
also.  The  time  to  fight  a  fire  is  when  you  are  building-  and  you  will 
not  need  so  many  fire  escapes. 

Mr.  Wolf:  I  see  the  erroneous  idea  prevails  where  they  have 
frame  boarding  houses  and  they  put  up  these  ladder  escapes  and  they 
lead  past  windows  where  they  have  no  chance  of  using  them. 

Mr.  Plant:  I  have  seen  many  one  story  and  a  half  cottages 
with  only  one  stairway  to  the  second  floor.  If  a  fire  starts  in  the  base- 
ment somebody  is  going  to  be  out  of  luck.  Why  not  put  an  enclosure 
on  that  stairway?  The  cost  is  not  much.  I  have  seen  firemen  living 
in  such  a  home.  Firemen  are  away  from  home  24  or  T8  hours  at  a 
time.  Some  firemen  are  quite  difficult  to  sell  fire  prevention  to.  It 
strikes  home  at  times.  Many  fires  in  one  and  one-half  story  cottages 
spread  up  the  stairway.  There  is  enough  combustible  material  there 
to  furnish  food  for  a  fire  and  a  human  being's  life  is  very  easily  ex- 
tinguished by  heat  and  smoke. 

Everyone  should  have  two  means  of  escape.  The  chances  of  fire 
being  in  two  places  at  once  are  rather  remote.  In  order  to  get  to  a 
fire  escape,  if  you  have  to  go  through  a  room  the  door  to  the  room 
should  have  a  full  glass  panel.     I  thank  you.      (Applause.) 

Chairman  Gamber:  The  next  on  the  program  is  the  demon- 
stration. Combating  the  Smoke  and  Gas  Hazard.  After  a  talk  by  the 
speaker,  demonstrations  will  be  had  on  the  outside  and  my  suggestion 
would  be  to  follow  the  leader  when  he  starts  out  to  the  place  where 
the  demonstration  is  to  be  held.  I  have  the  pleasure  of  introducing 
J.  B.  Fleming  of  the  Mine  Safety  Appliances  company  of  Pittsburgh. 
(Applause.) 

COMBATING  THE  SMOKE  AND  GAS  HAZARD 

J.  B.  Fleming,  Mine  Safety  Appliances  Company,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

The  subject,  "Combating  the  Smoke  and  Gas  Hazard,"  is  one  that 
demands  considerable  attention  on  the  part  of  firemen.  For  the  past 
ten  years  we  have  been  doing  a  lot  of  work  in  perfecting"  methods  and 
devices  for  protection  and  have  had  practical  experience  in  using  the 
same,  to  which  has  been  added  the  wide  use  and  experience  of  vari- 
ous fire  departments  throughout  the  country.  As  pointed  out  in  pre- 
ceding talks,  prevention  of  fire  is  the  main  thing,  but  when  fires  occur 
you  must  be  prepared  for  them  and  you  must  have  proper  equipment. 
From  the  standpoint  of  preparedness,  I  always  think  of  the  fire  de- 
partment as  fully  organized  for  a  kind  of  warfare,  prepared  ready  to 
get  on  the  jump  in  a  moment.  Time  is  an  important  item  in  the  sav- 
ing of  life  and  property  when  fire  starts.  There  might  be  smoke  or 
gas  that  is  comparatively  harmless  and  there  might  be  deadly  gases,  so 
the  conditions  are  such  that  men  cannot  rush  heedlessly  into  with- 
out protection.  With  proper  protection  a  fireman  may  do  many  things 
more  effectively  and  to  much  better  advantage.  In  the  old  davs,  a 
handkerchief  was  often  used,  put  over  the  nose  to  take  out  the  solid 
particles  of  smoke.  This  will  not  do.  To  combat  deadly  gases  fire- 
men must  have  real  protection. 


There  has  been  quite  a  lot  of  study  given  to  the  different  gases 
and  their  effects  upon  the  human  body.  The  mining  departments  have 
done  a  great  deal  in  that  respect  and  this  work  has  been  supplemented 
by  medical  societies,  and  many  different  organizations  and  industries 
that  have  to  deal  with  the  problem.  The  recent  war  gave  a  good  idea 
of  what  gas  will  do.  One  dangerous  gas  that  a  fireman  is  likely  to 
come  in  contact  with  is  carbon  monoxide,  formed  by  incomplete  com- 
bustion. A  good  example  of  the  occurrence  of  this  gas  is  in  automo- 
bile exhaust  and  in  artificial  gas  and  it  is  deadly  even  when  breathed 
in  very  small  quantities.  There  are  many  fires  that  produce  carbon 
monoxide.  In  the  burning  of  moving  picture  films,  celluloid,  large 
quantities  of  carbon  monoxide  are  given  off.  Also  in  department  store 
fires,  furniture,  varnish,  and  paints,  deadly  gases  are  present.  Take 
a  drug  store  fire  in  the  burning  of  various  chemicals  you  can  get  any 
combination  of  harmful  gases.  Carbon  monoxide  gas  causes  the  loss 
of  many  lives.  It  cannot  be  ordinarily  detected  as  it  has  no  odor,  it 
acts  rather  quickly,  and  even  in  partial  gassing  the  after-effects  are 
severe. 

Alan  is  so  constructed  that  he  should  breathe  pure  air,  which  is 
composed  of  about  twenty  percent  oxygen  and  eighty  percent  nitrogen, 
and  he  breathes  when  at  rest  about  twenty  times  per  minute,  and  when 
active  at  strenuous  work  thirty  times  or  faster  per  minute.  The  oxy- 
gen content  of  the  air  is  important  and  man  is  therefore  somewhat 


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G-ibbs,    Two    Hour    Type.  McCaa,    34    Hour    Type. 

OXYGEN    BREATHING    A  I'I'ARATUS  USED   IN   FIRE    FIGHTING 


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79 

restricted  in  his  movements  on  this  old  earth.  He  can  go  up  in  the 
air  a  certain  distance,  but  if  he  wants  to  go  very  high  he  must  carry 
some  means  of  providing  oxygen.  Devices  have  been  made  so  he  can 
penetrate  places  where  there  is  no  breatheable  air,  or  so  he  can  go  under 
water.  For  the  fireman,  however,  the  greater  part  of  his  work,  fully 
90  to  95  per  cent,  is  not  the  special  problem  where  no  air  exists,  but 
in  an  atmosphere  having  ample  oxygen  polluted  with  smoke  and  dan- 
gerous gases. 

There  are  three  types  of  apparatus  for  protection  and  the  Mine 
Safety  Appliances  company,  with  which  I  am  connected,  manufactures 
all  these  types,  so  from  that  standpoint  I  can  easily  afford  not  to  favor 
any  one  particular  type,  but  from  our  experience  in  the  past  ten  years 
we  have  come  to  some  rather  definite  conclusions  regarding  the  field 
of  use  of  each  tvpe.     I  want  to  mention  briefly  the  three  types : 

1.  Oxygen  breathing  apparatus. 

2.  Hose  mask. 

3.  Canister  mask,  all-service  type. 

1.  This  one  (indicating)  is  the  oxygen  breathing  apparatus  and 
is  constructed  in  the  best  possible  form,  all  the  weight  being  carried 
on  the  back.  It  is  a  two-hour  type.  The  heavy  bottle  contains  about 
ten  cubic  feet  of  oxygen  pumped  in  at  2,000  pounds  pressure,  so  that 
as  it  feeds  out  slowly  through  a  reducing  valve  it  will  give  a  required 
two-hours  service.  Wearing  this  apparatus,  a  man  is  breathing  oxy- 
gen and  he  is  cut  off  entirely  from  outside  air.  The  cartridge  con- 
tains chemicals  for  purifying  his  exhaled  air  so  that  he  breathes  it  over 
and  over.  It  is  provided  with  an  automatic  admission  valve  so  that 
the  wearer  can  get  all  the  oxygen  he  needs  if  breathing  slowlv  or  at  a 
high  rate.  It  is  a  mouth-breathing  type  and  a  clip  is  provided  to  close 
the  nostrils.  It  takes  a  trained  man  to  wear  it  and  the  mechanism 
should  be  inspected  often  so  that  it  is  always  in  proper  working  con- 
dition. It  weighs  thirty-four  pounds  and  naturally  a  man  cannot  do 
his  normal  amount  of  work  when  wearing  this  equipment,  but  trained 
men  are  able  to  do  very  satisfactory  work  with  it. 

( )ne  very  interesting  experience,  we  had  tests  ,011  Pike's  Peak, 
10, 000  feet  above  sea  level,  and  the  man  wearing  thirty-four  pounds 
of  this  equipment  could  do  more  work  than  the  ones  that  did  not  use 
them.  That  shows  some  of  the  different  results  under  different  con- 
ditions. Then  there  is  this  lighter  type,  the  McCaa  opparatus,  weigh- 
ing about  half  as  much  as  the  other,  with  the  weight  more  in  front, 
but  the  principle  of  operation  is  practically  the  same.  It  is  the  three- 
fourths  hour  type.  With  these  types  a  man  can  go  where  there  is  no 
air  at  all.  Me  is  not  dependent  at  all  on  the  outside  air.  That  would 
be  a  good  device  if  called  upon  to  go  down  a  deep  well  to  rescue  some- 
one, or  other  places  where  oxygen  content  is  low.  A  fire  department 
is  called  on  to  do  most  everything.  There  is  seldom  any  breatheable. 
air  in  a  deep  well  and  if  a  fellow  has  to  stay  longer  than  he  can  hold 
his  breath  it  is  not  a  good  place  to  be,  so  some  type  that  supplies  oxy- 
gen is  necessary  in  such  cases  and  in  certain  other  cases. 

2.  The  hose  type  is  not  adapted  for  lighting  fires.  In  this,  fresh 
air  is  forced  by  a  blower  in  through  a  hose  to  the  wearer.      I  mention 


80 


81 

it  to  show  the  method  of  handling  certain  problems,  such  as  cleaning 
out  gas  tanks  and  tank  cars,  and  in  sewers  and  manholes,  and  such 
places  where  the  wearer  is  within  50  or  100  feet  of  fresh  air  which 
can  readily  be  supplied  to  him  through  the  hose.  The  fireman,  how- 
ever, is  called  on  to  assist  in  rescue  work  under  such  conditions  and 
he  should  be  familiar  with  this  type  of  equipment. 

3.  The  third  type  and  one  which  we  especially  recommend  is 
this  one  (exhibiting  the  Burrell  all-service  mask).  For  firemen's  use, 
naturally  you  should  have  the  lightest  possible  outfit  and  one  that  you 
can  put  on  quickly,  one  that  is  comfortable  and  that  gives  absolute 
protection  against  all  gases  or  combinations  of  gases  where  the  oxygen 
content  is  not  too  low.  This  outfit  weighs  only  five  pounds.  The  face 
piece,  known  as  the  Kops,  is  made  of  pure  rubber,  is  very  comfortable 
even  when  worn  for  some  time,  easily  adjusted  in  a  couple  of  seconds 
and  fits  the  face  snugly.  The  tubes  bring  the  incoming  air  against  the 
lenses  and  thus  prevent  any  fogging  of  the  lenses.  It  provides  for 
breathing  naturally  through  the  nose  or  mouth  and  the  breathing  re- 
sistance is  slight.  The  air  is  breathed  through  the  canister  and  all 
poisonous  gases  are  taken  up  and  only  good  air  passes  through.  The 
timer  rotates  in  a  circle  as  the  hand  of  a  clock  and  makes  one  complete 
revolution  in  about  two  hours,  at  a  breathing  rate  of  twenty  to  thirty 
times  per  minute.  After  that  much  use  the  canister  should  be  replaced 
with  a  new  one  and  this  can  be  done  simply  by  unscrewing  the  canister 
and  putting  on  another.  Now  an  important  thing  about  this  mask  is 
the  contents  of  the  canister.  There  are  five  layers  of  chemicals  in 
the  canister  and  these  will  positively  purify  the  air  coming  through 
and  make  it  free  from  all  harmful  smoke  and  gas.  It  is  the  only  can- 
ister that  will  protect  against  carbon  monoxide.  This  gas  is  taken  up 
by  a  chemical  called  Hopcalite,  which  is  a  combination  of  certain  min- 
eral oxides,  silver,  manganese,  and  mercury.  The  government  had 
twenty  chemists  work  on  this  during  the  war  and  the  problem  was  not 
solved  until  about  the  end  of  the  war,  and  since  that  time  it  has  been 
greatly  improved  for  use  in  the  firemen's  mask  as  you  see  it. 

In  connection  with  this  mask  I  want  to  do  two  things,  later  give 
you  a  real  demonstration  outside  in  Shorty  Fay's  fire  truck  garage 
and  now  make  a  demonstration  on  the  effects  of  carbon  monoxide  on 
a  mouse,  and  I  think  this  will  interest  you,  gentlemen.  I  have  an  out- 
fit here  all  ready  for  this  demonstration.  In  this  bottle  there  is  a  one 
per  cent  mixture  of  carbon  monoxide,  such  as  you  might  encounter 
at  fires.  I  have  a  nice  little  white  fellow  (mouse)  here  and  will  put 
him  down  in  the  gas  chamber.  First,  we  will  test  the  mixture  to  find 
out  about  carbon  monoxide.  In  mine  rescue  operations  we  used  to 
carry  a  canary  in  a  small  cage  and  if  it  fell  off  its  perch,  it  was  a  warn- 
ing to  put  on  protective  devices.  Xow  the  chemists  have  come  to  our 
assistance  and  1  have  a  chemical  here  that  changes  color  if  any  carbon 
monoxide  is  present  in  the  air  1  pass  through  it.  You  see' the  test 
shows  it  has  changed  in  color  to  a  decided  green  and  when  I  compare 
it  with  the  color  chart,  it  shows  a  one  per  cent  mixture.  This  is  a 
deadly  mixture  and  would  get  a  man  down  in  a  short  time.  Even  a 
much  smaller  amount  would  affect  a  man  in  ten  to  fifteen  minutes.     It 


82 

isn't  a  good  thing  to  take  a  chance  on  this  gas  by  having  a  man  find  it 
by  getting  knocked  out  or  having  several  men  overcome  with  it.  When 
I  test  this  gas  on  the  mouse,  he  will  act  about  the  same  as  a  human 
being  would. 

Now  I  want  to  show  you  the  value  of  this  chemical  in  the  mask; 
You  see  the  Hopcalite  is  cbocolate  color.  I  will  pour  some  in  this  tube 
and  will  pass  the  mixture  through  this  chemical  onto  the  mouse.  In 
effect  the  mouse  will  be  wearing  a  gas  mask.  I  will  now  feed  the  mix- 
ture through  the  tube  into  the  mouse  in  the  gas  chamber.  You  see  him 
snifhng  at  the  air.  but  it  has  been  purified  and  he  is  all  right  so  long 
ns  the  mixture  passes  through  the  chemical.  This  chemical  has  one 
feature  that  is  very  interesting.  When  it  takes  up  or  changes  the 
carbon  monoxide,  it  begins  to  heat  up  and  if  a  fireman  wearing  a  mask 
got  into  a  mixture  that  was  high,  say  between  two  or  three  per  cent. 
the  canister  would  become  very  warm  and  he  would  have  warning 
about  such  a  high  content.  In  the  test  the  chemical  is  getting  somewhat 
warm  and  shows  that  it  is  working  right ;  also  the  mouse  is  safe.  We 
could  run  this  test  for  some  time,  but  after  a  few  minutes  we  will 
short-circuit  the  mixture  direct ;  in  other  words  he  won't  have  any 
gas  mask  on  and  then  we  will  watch  what  happens.  (Test  continues.) 
Now  as  our  time  is  getting  short  we  will  give  him  the  one  per  cent 
mixture  ;  then  we  better  have  our  rescue  outfit  ready  and  revive  him 
if  we  can.  I  have  a  bottle  of  carbogen  (oxygen  mixture)  for  reviving 
him.  In  about  a  minute  he  will  be  overcome.  You  will  note  that  as 
he  gets  some  of  the  gas  his  ears,  legs,  and  tail  are  turning  decidedly 
pink.  He  is  affected  now  and  is  getting  groggy.  Naturally  he  wants 
to  get  out  and  escape  if  he  can.  Now  he  is  down  after  about  forty 
seconds.  (  Mouse  is  then  revived  after  a  couple  of  minutes,  showing 
the  value  of  resuscitation  with  carbogen.) 

We  have  now  seen  something  on  how  to  deal  with  the  poison  gas 
problem.  Later  in  your  program  you  are  to  have  several  sessions  on 
resuscitation  and  first  aid  so  I  will  not  go  into  that.  There  is  a  stand- 
ard method  now  almost  universally  adopted,  that  is  the  prone  or 
Shaefer  manual  method,  with  the  administering  of  carbogen  with  an 
H-H  inhalator  (H-H  inhalator  developed  by  Drs.  Henderson  and 
Haggard). 

We  will  now  adjourn  to  meet  out  at  the  university  fire  station. 
where  Mr.  Fay  will  fix  up  a  real  mixture  for  demonstration  in 
deadly  atmosphere.  He  will  exhaust  that  big  fire  truck  in  the  garage 
for  twenty  minutes  or  so  and  we  will  have  formaldehyde  fumes. 
ammonia,  and  burn  sulphur,  rubber,  rooting  paper  and  anything  that 
he  wants  to  use  to  give  us  a  good  test.  (Demonstration  of  the  gas 
mask  outside  then  given  by   Mr.   Fleming.) 


83 


WEDNESDAY,  JUNE  17,  MORNING  SESSION 

A.  R.  Knight,  Assistant  Professor  of  Electrical  Engineering,  Univer 
sity  of  Illinois,  Chairman 


Chairman  Knight:  This  morning,  as  I  see  by  your  program, 
the  session  is  to  be  devoted  to  various  installations,  mechanical  and 
electrical,  which  have  a  direct  bearing  on  the  fire  hazard  to  buildings. 
The  first  talk  is  by  Mr.  Nelson,  who  will  speak  on  the  Mechanical  In- 
stallations of  Buildings.  You  heard  Mr.  Nelson  yesterday  after- 
noon so  he  needs  no  introduction  this  morning. 

MECHANICAL  INSTALLATIONS 

By  Raymond  T.   Nelson,  Engineer,  Western  Actuarial  Bureau, 

Chicago 

When  we  come  to  consider  mechanical  installations,  we  leave  the 
structure  to  itself  and  revert  to  a  different  type  of  hazard  than  we  had 
in  the  case  of  a  building.  If  you  will  recall,  fire  hazard  is  divisable 
into  two  groups,  causative  hazards  and  contributive  hazards.  Causa- 
tive hazards  are  those  which  originate  combustion,  while  contribu- 
tive hazards  tend  toward  the  spread  of  the  fire  when  once  started. 
A  device  will  start  a  fire  but  will  not  tend  to  spread  it,  this  latter 
effect  being  caused  solely  by  the  materials  surrounding  the  device. 

I  will  not  discuss  these  various  causes  found  within  a  building, 
but  will  only  make  direct  mention  as  to  what  the  hazard  includes,  not 
attempting  to  say  why  the  individual  devices  are  hazardous.  In  other 
words,  I  will  merely  take  them  up  from  the  standpoint  of  their  in- 
stallation, that  they  may  be  installed  as  safely  as  possible. 


84 


Enclosures  for  Electric  Motors  and  Dynamos 
small  enclosures 

Size:  Cubical  contents  of  enclosure  should  not  be  less  than  three  times  the 
product  of  the  dimensions  of  the  motor  or  dynamo  (length,  length  of 
shaft,  and  height).  For  enclosures  of  minimum  size,  the  height  should 
not  be  greater  than  one  and  one-half  times  the  height  of  the  motor  or 
dynamo. 

Enclosures  for  motors  not  in  dusty  surroundings,  having  sides  and 
top  constructed  of  No.  16  mesh  wire  screen  on  metal  framing,  need  only 
be  large  enough  to  permit  easy  access  for  inspection  and  cleaning. 

Sides  and  top  should  be  constructed  of  any  substantial  incombustible  ma- 
terial, or  of  matched  lumber,  not  less  than  %  inch  thick,  lined  through- 
out with  i/i-inch  asbestos  or  equivalent  material. 

Floor,  if  combustible,  should  be  covered  with  ^4-inch  asbestos  or  equivalent 
material. 

Door  should  be  equal  in  size  to  one  full  side  or  top  and  be  self  closing. 

Window  should  be  of  wire-glass  and  located  so  apparatus  may  be  plainly 
seen.  No  dimensions  should  be  less  than  one-half  the  height  of  the 
motor  or  dynamo  but  need  not  exceed  2  square  feet. 

Ventilation:     All  enclosures  should  be  ventilated. 

Ventilation  of  enclosures  of  minimum  size,  when  motor  is  not  sub- 
ject to  inflammable  dust  or  flyings,  may  be  effected  by  means  of  at 
least  two  No.  16  wire  mesh  screens  placed  on  opposite  sides  of  enclos- 
ure, one  near  top,  the  other  near  floor.  The  area  of  each  screen  should 
equal  the  square  of  the  height  of  the  motor  or  dynamo.  If  either  di- 
mension exceeds  2  feet,  screen  should  be  reinforced. 

If  device  is  subject  to  dust  or  flyings,  screens  should  not  be  used. 
Ventilation  should  be  effected  by  two  metal  pipes  to  the  outside  of 
building,  thp  diameter  of  which  should  equal  one-fourth  the  greatest 
dimension  of  device,  unless  a  blower  is  used  to  circulate  the  air.  If 
blower  is  used,  pipe  need  only  be  supplied  for  intake,  outlet  being 
screened  as  above  described.  Intake  pipe  should  enter  box  near  floor 
and  exhaust  pipe  on  opposite  side  at  top. 

Ventilation  of  enclosures  larger  than  minimum  size  should  be  ef- 
fected by  the  use  of  two  metal  pipes  not  less  than  6  inches  in  diameter 
vented  to  the  outside  of  the  building.  Intake  and  exhaust  pipes  should 
enter  and  leave  box  as  above  described. 

Power  Transmission  should  be  effected  by  shaft  passing  thru  side  of  box 
with  pulley  on  the  outside.  Hole  in  side  should  be  as  small  as  possible, 
and  closed  by  two  pieces  of  galvanized  iron,  sliding  horizontally  in 
grooves,  with  semi-circular  openings  in  each,  closing  tightly  over  shaft 
and  held  in  place  by  hooks,  thumb  screws,  or  other  similar  fastenings. 


85 


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86 


ROOM   ENCLOSURES 

In  general,  room  should  be  built  as  nearly  dust  proof  as  possible.  It  should 
be  used  for  no  other  purpose  and  be  of  such  a  size  that  a  man  may 
enter  and  have  free  access  to  all  apparatus. 

Walls  and  Ceiling  should  be  constructed  of  any  substantial  incombustible 
material,  or  of  matched  lumber,  not  less  than  %  inch  thick,  completely 
lined  with  14-inch  asbestos  or  equivalent  material. 

Floor,  if  combustible,  should  be  covered  with  one  inch  of  concrete  or  equiv- 
alent material. 

Door  should  be  all  metal  or  of  matched  lumber,  not  less  than  %  inch  thick, 
lined  with  ^-inch  asbestos  or  equivalent  material,  and  be  self  closing. 

Window  should  be  of  wire  glass  in  fixed  sash,  not  less  than  two  feet  square 
and  be  so  located  that  apparatus  may  be  plainly  seen. 

Ventilation:  All  rooms  should  be  ventilated.  Ventilations  should  be  ef- 
fected by  the  use  of  two  metal  pipes  not  less  than  6  inches  in  diameter, 
vented  to  the  outside  of  building.  Intake  pipe  should  enter  room  near 
floor  at  one  side  and  exhaust  leave  at  or  near  top  at  other  side. 

Power  Transmission:  If  pulley  is  outside  of  room,  shaft  passing  thru  wall 
should  have  least  possible  clearance.  Hole  in  wall  should  be  closed 
by  two  pieces  of  galvanized  iron,  sliding  horizontally  in  grooves,  with 
semi-circular  openings  in  each,  closing  tightly  on  shaft  or  bearing  and 
held  in  place  by  hooks,  thumb  screws,  or  other  similar  fastenings. 

If  by  belt  passing  thru  wall,  belt  should  be  housed  in  an  enclosure 
of  metal,  or  of  matched  lumber,  not  less  than  %  inch  thick,  lined  thru- 
out  with  ^4-inch  asbestos  or  equivalent  material.  Housing  should  be 
provided  with  a  hinged  panel  to  permit  cleaning. 

Control  apparatus  should  be  located  inside  of  the  room. 


87 


88 


ROOM   ENCLOSURES 

In  general,  room  should  be  built  as  nearly  dust  proof  as  possible.  It  should 
be  used  for  no  other  purpose  and  be  of  such  a  size  that  a  man  may  enter 
and  have  free  access  to  all  apparatus. 

Walls  and  Ceiling  should  be  constructed  of  any  substantial  incombustible 
material  or  of  matched  lumber,  not  less  than  %  inch  thick,  completely 
lined  with   14-inch  asbestos  or  equivalent  material. 

Floor,  if  combustible,  should  be  covered  with  one  inch  of  concrete  or  equiv- 
alent material. 

Door  should  be  all  metal  or  of  matched  lumber,  not  less  than  %  inch  thick, 
lined  with   14-inch  asbestos  or  equivalent  material,  and  be  self  closing. 

Window  should  be  of  wire  glass  in  fixed  sash,  not  less  than  two  feet  square 
and  be  so  located  that  apparatus  may  be  plainly  seen. 

Ventilation:  All  rooms  should  be  ventilated.  Ventilations  should  be  ef- 
fected by  the  use  of  two  metal  pipes  not  less  than  6  inches  in  diameter, 
vented  to  the  outside  of  building.  Intake  pipe  should  enter  room  near 
floor  at  one  side  and  exhaust  leave  at  or  near  top  at  other  side. 

Power  Transmission:  If  pulley  is  outside  of  room,  shaft  passing  thru 
wall  should  have  least  possible  clearance.  Hole  in  wall  should  be* 
closed  by  two  pieces  of  galvanized  iron,  sliding  horizontally  in  grooves, 
with  semi-circuar  openings  in  each,  closing  tightly  on  shaft  or  bearing 
and  held  in  place  by  hooks,  thumb  screws,  or  other  similar  fastenings. 
If  by  belt  passing  thru  wall,  belt  should  be  housed  in  an  enclosure 
of  metal,  or  of  matched  lumber,  not  less  than  %-inch  thick,  finished 
throughout  with  14-inch  asbestos  or  equivalent  material.  Housing 
should  be  provided  with  a  hinged  panel  to  permit  cleaning. 

Control  apparatus  should  be  located  inside  of  the  room. 


80 


!)() 


Installation  of  Internal  Combustion  Engines 

Location:  Engines  located  so  as  to  be  subject  to  inflammable  vapors,  dust 
or  flyings  should  be  enclosed  in  rooms  well  ventilated  to  the  outside 
at  floor  and  ceiling. 

Feed: 

Gas  Engines:  Feed  pipe  should  run  as  direct  as  possible  and  be  pro- 
vided with  a  shut-off  valve  in  service  side  of  pressure  regulator. 

Gas  bag  or  pressure  regulator  should  be  enclosed  in  a  gas 
tight  metal  drum  vented  to  the  outside  thru  a  pipe  used  for  no 
other  purpose. 

Gasoline    Engines:      Supply  tank:    (see  plate  B.4.a.) 

Feed  pump  should  be  of  an  approved  type  and  have  check 
valve  as  close  to  pump  as  is  convenient. 

Carburetor  should  have  an  overflow  connection  draining  back 
to  supply  tank. 

Kerosene  and  Fuel  Oil  Engines:  Supply  tanks:  (See  plate  B.6.q.) 
Auxiliary  tanks  for  providing  a  supply  of  oil  within  building  should 
not  exceed  60  gallons.  Tank  should  be  filled  by  pump,  and  have 
overflow  pipe  draining  back  to  main  supply  tank.  Oil  should  be 
drawn  from  auxiliary  tank  by  approved  pump  operated  by  engine. 
Gravity  or  compressed  air  feed  may  be  used  from  tanks  not  in 
excess  of  one  gallon. 

Ignition: 

Gas  and  Gasoline  Engines:      Electric  ignition  only  should  be  used. 

Kerosene  and  Fuel  Oil  Engines:  Torches  for  preheating  combustion 
chambers  should  be  of  an  approved  type  and  used  only  while  start- 
ing engine. 

Muffler:  Muffler  should  be  on  firm  foundation  and  have  at  least  12  inches 
clearance  to  combustible  materials. 

Exhaust:  Exhaust  pipe  should  be  carried  above  the  roof  or  extend  at  least 
10  feet  from  any  wall  opening. 

Clearance  between  exhaust  pipe  and  combustible  materials  should 
not  be  less  than  9  inches. 

When  exhaust  pipe  passes  thru  combustible  partitions,  floors, 
walls  or  roof,  it  should  be  guarded,  by  a  metal  thimble  at  least  12  inches 
larger  in  diameter  than  the  pipe. 

Floor:  Wooden  floor  under  engine  should  be  covered  with  metal  extending 
24  inches  on  all  sides  of  engine. 

Drip   Pan:      Drip  pan  should  be  provided  under  engine. 


91 


92 

Gasoline  Storage  Tanks 
(  underground) 

Tanks: 

Construction:      Tanks  should  be  of  approved  construction. 

Setting:  Tanks  should  be  buried  at  least  3  feet  below  ground  and  be- 
low the  level  of  any  piping  to  which  tanks  may  be  connected. 

Tanks  should  be  set  on  firm  foundation  and  surrounded  with 
soft  earth  or  sand  well  tamped  in  place,  or  encased  in  at  least  6 
inches  of  concrete. 

Fill  Pipe  should  be  screened,  and  terminate  in  a  metal  box  or  casting 
provided  with  a  means  for  locking. 

Pipe  should  extend  into  tanks  within  2  inches  of  bottom. 

Pipe  should  not  be  located  less  than  5  feet  from  any  window 
or  other  building  opening. 

Vent  Pipe:  A  permanently  open  vent  should  be  provided.  Vent  open- 
ing should  be  screened  (30x30  brass  mesh  or  equivalent)  and  of 
such  a  size  as  to  allow  proper  flow  of  liquid  during  filling  operation. 
Outlet  should  be  provided  with  a  weatherproof  hood  and  terminate 
at  a  point  at  least  12  feet  above  top  of  fill  pipe  and  at  least  3  feet, 
horizontally  or  vertically,  from  any  window  or  other  building  open- 
ing. 

Where  a  battery  of  tanks  is  installed,  vent  pipe  may  run  into 
a  main  header.  Individual  vent  pipes  should,  however,  be  screened 
between  tank  and  header,  and  connection  to  header  should  not  be 
less  than  one  foot  above  the  level  of  the  highest  reservoir  from 
which  tanks  may  be  filled. 

Vent  pipe  should  not  extend  into  tank. 

Suction  Pipe:  Liquid  should  be  withdrawn  from  tank  without  unneces- 
sary exposure  by  a  substantially  constructed  discharge  device  of 
approved  design. 

Openings  for  withdrawal  of  liquid  should  be  provided  with  a 
means  for  locking. 

Pipe  should  extend  into  tank  within  2  inches  of  bottom. 

Overflow  Pipe:  An  overflow  pipe  should  be  provided  and  extend  into 
tank  within  2  inches  of  bottom. 

Piping  should  be  of  full  weight  galvanized  wrought  iron  or  steel,  or 
brass. 

Piping  should  run  as  directly  as  possible,  be  protected  against 
injury  and  laid  so  pipes  pitch  back  to  supply  tank. 

All  pipes  should  have  well  fitting  joints.  Unions,  if  used  in 
place  of  right  and  left  couplings,   should  be  of  an  approved  type. 

Pipes  leading  to  surface  of  ground  should  be  cased  or  jacketed. 

All  outside  piping  should  be  laid  below  frost  line  in  solid  earth. 
Pipes  should  not  be  laid  near  or  in  same  trench  as  other  piping. 

Opening  for  pipes  thru  outside  walls  should  be  cemented  and 
made  oil  tight. 

Fitting:     All  fitting  should  be  of  an  approved  type. 

Location:  Distance  of  tanks  from  buildings  should  be  as  indicated  in 
sketch. 

Care  and  Attendance:  Tank  should  be  filled  in  daylight  hours  only.  No 
fire  or  artificial  light  should  be  allowed  near  tanks.  All  openings'  should 
be  locked  except  when  in  use. 


93 


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94 


Fuel  Oil  Storage  Tanks 
(underground) 

Tanks: 

Construction:     Tanks   should  be  of  an  approved  type. 

Setting":     Tanks  should  be  buried  as  follows: 

At  least  3  feet  below  ground  or  below  level  of  any  piping  to  which 
they   may   be   connected,   or 

Under  18  inches  of  earth  and  a  6-inch  reinforced  concrete  cover  ex- 
tending at  least  one  foot  beyond  outline  of  tank  in  all  directions. 

Under  12  inches  of  earth  when  completely  enclosed  in  reinforced  con- 
crete not  less  than  12  inches  thick  with  at  least  a  6-inch  space  on  sides 
between  tank  and  concrete.      Space  should  be  filled  with  sand  and  tamped. 

Tank  should  be  anchored  or  weighted  in  place  to  prevent  floating. 

Pill  Pipes  should  be  in  cast  iron  or  incombustible  box  which  is  provided  with  a 
lock.      Pipe  should  extend  into  tank  within  2  inches  of  bottom. 

Vent  Pipe:  A  permanently  open  vent,  not  less  than  1*4  inches  in  diameter 
should  be  provided.  Vent  opening  should  be  screened  (40x40  brass  mesh 
or  equivalent)  and  of  such  a  size  to  permit  the  proper  flow  of  liquid  dur- 
ing filling.  Outlet  should  be  provided  with  a  weatherproof  hood  and  ter- 
minate at  a  point  at  least  12  feet  above  top  of  fill  pipe  and  at  least  3  feet 
horizontally  and  vertically  from  any  window  or  other  building  opening. 
Vent   pipe    should   not   extend   into    tank. 

Manhole   covers   should   be    securely   fastened   in   place.     No    manhole    should   be 
used  for  filling  purposes. 

Suction    Line:      Liquid    should    be    drawn    from    tank    by    an    approved    pumping 
system  having  strainers  in  suction  line. 

Pump  and   strainers   should  be    set   in   a   concrete  pit   and  enclosed   in   an 
incombustible  structure. 

Suction  pipe  should  extend  into  tank  within  2  inches  of  bottom. 

Overflow  Pipe  should  extend  into  tank  within  2   inches  of  bottom. 

Piping": 

Cross  Connections  permitting  gravity  flow  from  one  tank  to  another  should 
not  exist  except  in  case  of  outside  tanks  where  it  may  De  permitted 
thru   an  open   connection. 

Material  should  be   full   weight  wrought   iron   or   steel. 

Piping  for  working  pressures  of  100  pounds  or  less  should  be  able 
to  withstand  150  pounds,  while  piping  for  working  pressures  of  more 
than   100   pounds  should  have  a  50%    factor  of   safety. 

Protection  of  Piping:  Pipes  hading  to  surface  of  ground  or  above  floor 
should   be   protected   against   injury. 

Outside  piping  should  he  laid  below  frost  line  in  solid  earth.  Pipe 
should  not  be  located  near  nor  in  same  trench  with  other  piping  except 
steam   lines   for   heating. 

Opening  in  outside  walls  below  ground  level  should  be  securely 
packed  with   flexible   material   and   be   oil-tight. 

Fittings  should  all  be  of  an   approved  type. 

Heating:      Where   ii    is  necessarj    to  heal   oil  in  storage  tanks  in  order  to  handle, 

the  oil   should  not   be  heated  to  a   temperature  higher   than    in      p.  below  the 
dash  point,  closed  cup. 

Heating    should    he    done    by    means    of    properly    installed    coils    in    tank, 
using  only    hot    water   or   steam.     Thermostatic   control    should   be   provided, 

Location:      Distance  of  tank    from   buildings  should   be  as   noted   in   sketch. 


95 


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96 


Furnaces 

Furnaces  are  classified  as  follows: 
Hand   or   Movable,  embracing    glue    and    soldering    furnaces,    oxyacetylene 
torches,  blow  torches,  crucibles,  cupels,  and  other  small  devices,  such 
as   stoves   for   heating   irons    in    tailor    shops,   water   heaters    in    barber 
shops,  etc.       Fixed  gas  pipe  connections  should  not  affect  the  classifi- 
cation of  the  furnace. 
Stationary,  embracing  all  furnaces  not  classed  as  Hand   or  Movable.     Sta- 
tionary furnaces  are  graded  according  to  temperature  as  follows: 
Low,  embracing  all  furnaces  with  temperatures  up  to  the  melting  point 

of  lead,  600°  Fahr. 
Medium,  embracing  all  furnaces  with  temperatures  necessary  to  pro- 
duce high  pressure  steam,  anneal  metals,  glass,  etc.;  600°  to  1500' 
Fahr. 
High,  embracing  all  furnaces  with  temperatures  necessary  for  ore  roast- 
ing, bloom  and  billet  heating,  iron  smelting  or  fusing;  1500=  Fahr. 
and  upwards. 

Note  1:  Furnaces  grading  High  should  grade  as  Medium  and  fur- 
naces grading  Medium  as  Low  when  not  more  than  100  cu.  ft.  in 
size,  outside  measurement. 
Note  2:  All  furnaces  used  for  heating  only  should  grade  as  Low 
except  boilers  carrying  more  than  50  pounds  pressure,  which 
should  grade  as  Medium. 

Small  boilers,  not  used  in  connection  with   power  devices, 
such  as  those  found  in  rubber  tire  repair  shops,  milk   depots, 
etc.,  should  grade  as  Low  regardless  of  pressure. 
The   following   List    of   Furnaces    and    Tables    of    Temperatures    will    be 
found  useful  for  reference  in  establishing  the  grade  of  a  furnace: 

List  of  Furnaces 
Grade 


Low 


Medium 


High 


Annealing  Baths  for 

hard      glass       (fats, 

paraffine,      salts      or 

metals). 

Bake     Ovens      (in 

bakeries). 

Boiling      Vats,      for 

wood     fibre,     straw, 

lignin,   etc. 

Candy  Furnaces. 

Coffee    Roasting 

Ovens. 

Core   Ovens. 

Cruller  Furnaces. 

Feed  Drying  Ovens. 

Fertilizing      Drying 

Ovens. 

Forge    Furnaces 

(solid   fuel). 

11.  Gypsum  Kilns. 

12.  Hardening  Furnaces 

(below    dark    red). 

13.  Hot  Air  Engine  fur- 
naces. 


L0. 


1.  Alabaster  Gypsum 
Kilns. 

2.  Annealing  Furnaces 
(glass   or   metal). 

3.  Charcoal    Furnaces. 

4.  Cold  Stirring  Fur- 
naces. 

5.  Feed  Driers  (di- 
rect fire  heated). 

6.  Fertilizer  Driers 
(direct  fire  heated). 

7.  Galvanizing  F  u  r- 
naces. 

8.  Gas  Producers. 

9.  Hardening  Fur- 
naces (cherry  to 
pale   red). 

10.  Lehrs      and 
Holes. 

11.  Lime  Kilns. 

12.  Linseed   Oil   Boilin 
Furnaces. 

13.  Porcelain 
Kilns. 


8. 


Glory       12. 

13. 
14. 


Biscuit       15. 


1.  Bessemer   Retorts. 

2.  Billet     and      Bloom 
Furnaces. 

3.  Blast  Furnaces. 

4.  Bone  Calcining  Fur- 
naces. 

5.  Brass  Furnaces. 

6.  Carbon    Point    Fur- 
naces. 

7.  Cement    Brick    and 
Tile  Kilns. 
Coal    and     Water 
Gas  Retorts. 
Cupolas. 

Earthenware  Kilns. 
Glass  Blow  Fur- 
naces. 

Glass     F  u  rn  a  c  e  s 
(smelting). 
Glass   Kilns. 
Open     Hearth     Fur- 
naces. 

Ore  Roasting  Fur- 
naces. 


97 


Grade 


14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 
18. 


19. 
20. 
21. 

22. 

23. 
24. 

25. 

26. 

27. 

28. 


Fur- 


Fur- 


Clow 


15. 


16. 
17. 


18. 


Low 

Ladle    Drying    Fur-       14. 
naces. 

Lead    Melting    Fur- 
naces. 

Nickel    Plate     (dry- 
ing)   Furnaces. 
Paraffine  Furnaces. 
Recuperative      Fur- 
naces     (spent     ma- 
terials). 
Rendering 
naces. 

Rosin   Melting 
naces. 

Steam  Boilers 
pressure). 

Stereotype  Fur- 
naces. 

Sulphur   Furnaces. 
Tripoli  Kilns    (clay, 
coke  and  Gypsum). 
Type   Foundry   Fur- 
naces. 

Wood    Drying    Fur- 
naces. 

Wood  Impregnating 
Furnaces. 

Zinc   Amalgamating 
Furnaces. 


Medium 

Pulp   Driers    (direct  16. 
fire  heated). 

Steam  Boilers  (high  17. 
pressure).  18. 
Water-glass  Kiln.  19. 
Wood-distilling  Fur- 
naces. 20. 
Wood-gas  Retorts. 

21. 


22. 
23. 


Table  of  Temperatures 
Fusion  Point  of  Metals 


High 

Porcelain  Baking 
and  Glazing  Kilns. 
Pot-arches. 
Puddling  Furnaces. 
Regenerative      Fur- 
naces. 

Reverberatory    Fur- 
naces. 

Stacks,     Carbureter 
or  Superheating 

Furnaces    (in  water 
gas  works). 
Welding  Furnaces. 
Wood     Carbonizing 
Furnaces. 


Blast  Furnace   Slag 2500 'Fain- 


Bessemer  Retort  Slag 

Brass    

Bronze    

Cast   Iron    (pig)  .  . 

Copper    

Ferro-nickel   Steel 

Gold     

Iron    (pure)    


2000 


3100c 
1600c 
1450' 
-2400c 
.2000c 
2250c 
1950c 
3275c 


Fahr. 
Fahr. 
Fahr. 
Fahr. 
Fahr. 
Fahr. 
Fahr. 
Fahr. 


Iron    (wrought) 3300°-4000°  Fahr. 

Lead    630°  Fahr. 

Manganese    Steel    2300°  Fahr. 

Nickel    2700°  Fahr. 

Silver    1750°  Fahr. 

Soft   Solder    340°  Fahr. 

Steel     2400°-3300°  Fahr. 

Tin    450°  Fahr. 

Zinc    775°  Fahr. 


98 


Installation  of  Hand  or  Movable  Furnaces 
gas  plates 

Base:  If  plate  is  not  equipped  with  legs  at  least  4  inches  high,  plate  should 
rest  upon  an  incombustible  base  or  upon  a  combustible  base  protected 
by  a  course  of  4-inch  hollow  tile  on  %-inch  asbestos  crossed  with  boiler 
iron. 

If  plate  is  equipped  with  legs  at  least  4  inches  high,  plate  may  rest 
upon  a  combustible  base  covered  with  metal  and  half  a  baffle  plate  sus- 
pended at  least  2  inches  above  combustible  base. 

Lateral  and  Vertical  Clearances:  Clearance  between  plate  and  unprotected 
combustible  material  above,  and  at  sides,  front  and  rear  should  con- 
form to  the  following  minimum  requirements: 

Above     48  inches 

Sides,  front  and  rear 18  inches 

If  combustible  material  at  sides  and  rear  is  protected  with  %-inch 
asbestos  covered  with  sheet  metal  to  a  point  18  inches  above  burners, 
clearance  at  sides  and  rear  may  be  reduced  to  6  inches. 

If  combustible  materials  at  sides  and  rear  are  protected  with  i^-inch 
asbestos  covered  with  4  inches  of  hollow  tile  to  a  point  18  inches  above 
burners,  clearance  at  sides  and  rear  may  be  reduced  to  2  inches. 

Gas  Connections:      Gas  connection  should  consist  of  an  iron  pipe. 


09 


100 


GAS   SOLDERING   FURNACE 

Base:  If  plate  is  not  equipped  with  legs  at  least  4  inches  high,  plate  should 
rest  upon  an  incombustible  base  or  upon  a  combustible  base  protected 
by  a  course  of  4-inch  hollow  tile  on  %-inch  asbestos  crossed  with  boiler 
iron. 

If  plate  is  equipped  with  legs  at  least  4  inches  high,  plate  may  rest 
upon  a  combustible  base  covered  with  metal. 

Lateral  and  Vertical  Clearances:  Clearance  between  plate  and  unpro- 
tected combustible  material  above,  and  at  sides,  front  and  rear  should 
conform  to  the  following  minimum  requirements: 

Above    48  inches 

Sides,  front  and  rear 18  inches 

If  combustible  material  at  sides  and  rear  is  protected  with  U-inch 
asbestos  covered  with  sheet  metal  to  a  point  18  inches  above  burners, 
clearance  at  sides  and  rear  may  be  reduced  to  6  inches. 

If  combustible  materials  at  sides  and  rear  are  protected  with  %-inch 
asbestos  covered  with  4  inches  of  hollow  tile  to  a  point  18  inches  above 
burners,  clearance  at  sides  and  rear  may  be  reduced  to  2  inches. 

Gas  Connections:     Gas  connection  should  consist  of  an  iron  pipe. 


101 


&Z.C 


102 


Installation  of  Stationary  Furnaces 


WITHOUT  MASONRY  SETTING  AND  UNLINED 

Ventilation:  Rooms  containing  Medium  Furnaces  should  be  provided  with 
adequate  means  of  ventilation  either  in  ceiling  or  wall  above  furnace. 

Lateral  and  Vertical  Clearances:  Clearance,  between  furnace  and  unpro- 
tected combustible  materials  above  and  at  sides,  front  and  rear,  should 
conform  to  the  following  minimum  requirements: 

Grade  of  Furnace 

Low  Medium 

Above     18  inches  48  inches 

At  sides  and  rear 18  inches  36  inches 

In  front   48  inches  96  inches 

Metal  Breeching  or  Smokepipe:  Clearance  between  metal  breeching  or 
smokepipe  and  unprotected  combustible  materials,  except  where  pass- 
ing thru  floors  or  roof  (see  B.2.h.  and  L),  should  conform  to  the  follow- 
ing minimum  requirements: 

Grade  of  Furnace 

Low  Medium 

Above    18  inches  36  inches 

At   Sides    18  inches  36  inches 

Metal  Stacks:      (See  plates  B.2.h.  and  i.) 


103 


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104 


Installation  of  Stationary  Furnaces 
without  masonry  setting  and  unlined 

Ventilation:  Rooms  containing  Medium  Furnaces  should  be  provided  with 
adequate  means  of  ventilation  either  in  ceiling  or  wall  above  furnace. 

Floor:  Floor  under  Low  Furnaces,  if  combustible,  should  be  protected  by 
two  courses  of  4-inch  hollow  tile  crossed  with  boiler  iron  on  top,  or 
three  courses  of  brick,  with  middle  course  laid  crosswise  and  on  edge, 
with  ventilating  spaces,  left  open  at  ends,  between.  Protection  should 
extend  even  with  furnace  at  sides,  front  and  rear,  and  in  addition,  if 
other  than  gas.  electricity  or  liquid  fuel  is  used,  floor,  for  a  distance 
of  18  inches  in  front,  should  be  protected  by  a  layer  of  14-inch  asbestos 
covered  with  sheet  metal  or  its  equivalent. 

Floor  under  Medium  Furnaces  should  be  fireproof  or  incombustible 
on  incombustible  supports  extending  8  feet  in  front  and  3  feet  at  sides 
and  rear. 

Lateral  and  Vertical  Clearances:  Clearance  between  furnace  and  unpro- 
tected combustible  materials  above  and  at  sides,  front  and  rear,  should 
conform  to  the  following  minimum   requirements: 

Grade   of   Furnace 

Low  Medium 

Above     18  inches  48  inches 

At  sides   and  rear 18  inches  36  inches 

In   front    48  inches  96  inches 

Metal  Breeching  or  Smokepipe:  Clearance  between  metal  breeching  or 
smokepipe  and  unprotected  combustible  materials,  except  where  pass- 
ing thru  floors  or  roof  (see  B.2.h.  and  i.l,  should  conform  to  the  follow- 
ing minimum  requirements: 

Grade  of  Furnace 

Low  Medium 

Above    18  inches  36  inches 

At  Sides    18  inches  36  inches 

Metal  Stacks:      (See  plates  B.2.h.  and  i.) 


105 


106 


Installation  of  Stationary  Furnaces 
with  masonry  setting  or  lined  with  fire  brick  or  its  equivalent 

Ventilation:  Rooms  containing  Medium  Furnaces  should  be  provided  with 
adequate  means  of  ventilation  either  in  ceiling  or  wall  above  furnace. 

Lateral  and  Vertical  Clearances:  Clearance  between  furnace  and  unpro- 
tected combustible  material  at  sides,  front  and  rear,  should  conform  to 
the  following  minimum  requirements : 

Grade   of   Furnace 

Low  Medium 

Above    12  inches  36  inches 

At  sides  and  rear 12  inches  18  inches 

In   Front    48  inches  96  inches 

Metal  Breeching  or  Smokepipe:  Clearance  between  metal  breeching  or 
Smokepipe  and  unprotected  combustible  material,  except  where  pass- 
ing thru  floors  or  roof  (see  Stacks),  should  conform  to  the  following 
minimum  requirements : 

Grade  of  Furnace 

Low  Medium 

Above    18  inches  36  inches 

At   sides    18  inches  36  inches 

Metal  Stack:      (See  plates  B.2.h.  and  i.) 


10' 


108 


Installation  of  Stationary  Furnaces 
foundry  cupolas 

Clearance  between  unprotected  combustible  materials  above  and  in 
front  of  charging  door,  tap  hole,  slag  spout;  at  sides  of  furnace;  and  the 
height  of  top  of  stack  above  combustible  roof,  should  conform  to  the  fol- 
lowing requirements: 

In  front  of  charging  door 10  feet 

Above   charging  door 10  feet 

In  front  of  tap  holes  or  slag  spout 30  feet 

Note:  When  molten  waste  materials  are  dumped  beneath 
furnace,  lateral  clearance  from  base  of  furnace  should  be 
not  less  than  30  feet  in  all  directions. 

Above  tap  holes  or  slag  spout 10  feet 

Where  passing  thru  floor  or  roof,  or  where  walls,  parti- 
tions, etc.,  are  exposed  bv  portions  of  the  furnace  with- 
out charging  doors,  tap  holes,  or  other  openings 2  feet 

Clearance  from  top  of  stack  to  combustible  roof: 

With  approved   covering    10  feet 

With  unapproved  covering    30  feet 


109 


B.2. 


7t?    <0/fe</-3T/B±£    MATSVAL 


&SMP  g^atf 


CUPOLA    CLEARANCES    AHD  PROTECTIONS 


vwa 


1.10 


Stacks  Through  Combustible  Floors  or  Roof 
without  collar 

Clearances  between  stacks,  chimneys  and  stovepipes  and  unprotected 
combustible  materials  where  passing  thru  floors  or  roof  should  conform 
to  the  following  minimum  requirements: 

Grade  of   Furnaces 

Low  Medium  High 

Metal  stacks  unlined  or  not  entirely  en- 
closed where  passing  through  floors  or 
roof    6  inches     18  inches 

Note:  If  metal  stack,  unlined  or  not 
entirely  enclosed,  passes  through 
rooms  with  combustible  contents, 
clearance  from  contents  should  be 
provided  by  surrounding  the  stack 
with  an  approved  wire  or  metal 
screen  with  clear  space  between 
stack  and  screen  equal  to  the  dis- 
tances specified  above. 

Brick  stacks  or  metal  stacks  lined  with  fire 
brick  (not  including  foundry  cupolas 
or  similar  upright  furnaces  which  con- 
stitute their  own  stacks) 18  inches 


Ill 


B.2.h 


5tack  Thru  Combustible  Roof 

(WITHOUT     COLLAR) 


A/VB 


112 


Stacks  Through  Combustible  Roof 
with  collar 

Clearance  from  stacks,  chimneys  and  stovepipes  and  combustible  ma- 
terial where  passing  thru  floors  and  roof  should  conform  to  the  follow- 
ing minimum  requirements: 

Grade   of   Furnaces 

Low  Medium  High 

Metal  stacks  unlined  or  not  entirely  en- 
closed, but  provided  with  metal  ventilat- 
ing jacket  at  floors  or  roof  equidistant 
from  woodwork  and  stack,  extending 
not  less  than  6  inches  below  lower  edge 
of  floor  or  roof  joists,  and  with  metal 
hood  around  stack  over  opening  through 
roof  with  at  least  a  2-inch  air  space 
above   roof   for   air   circulation 3  inches     12  inches 


113 


B.2.< 


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Stack  Thru   Combustible:  Roof 
(with  collar) 


114 

Installation  of  Hot  Air  Furnaces 

Floors:  Floors,  if  combustible,  should  be  protected  by  two  courses  of  4- 
inch  hollow  tile  crossed  with  boiler  iron  on  top,  or  three  courses  of 
brick,  with  middle  course  laid  crosswise  and  on  edge,  with  ventilating 
spaces,  left  open  at  ends,  between.  Protection  should  extend  even  with 
furnace  at  sides,  front  and  rear,  and  in  addition,  if  other  than  gas,  elec- 
tricity, or  liquid  fuel  is  used,  floor,  for  a  distance  of  18  inches  in  front, 
should  be  protected  by  a  layer  of  ^-inch  asbestos  covered  with  sheet 
metal  or  its  equivalent. 

Lateral  and  Vertical  Clearances:  Clearances  between  furnace  and  unpro- 
tected materials  above,  and  at  sides,  front  and  rear  should  meet  the 
following  minimum  requirements: 

Above    18  inches 

At  sides   and  rear 18  inches 

In  front   48  inches 

Note:      If   clearances   are    less    than    those    specified   above,    combustible    ma- 
terials should   be  protected  as  follows: 
Above:      Top   of   furnace    should   be   insulated   with    4    inches    of   sand   or 

its  equivalent  leaving-  ceiling  open  for  inspection. 
At  sides,  rear  or  in  front:  Woodwork  should  be  protected  by  a  layer 
of  not  less  than  i/s-inch  asbestos  with  a  covering  of  sheet  metal 
supported  so  as  to  leave  an  air  space  of  one  inch,  or  by  a  layer 
of  %-inch  asbestos  board  supported  to  leave  at  least  a  1-inch  air 
space.  In  no  event  should  the  clearances  be  less  than  one-half 
of  those  specified  above. 

Breeching  or  Smokepipes:  Clearances  between  metal  breeching  or  smoke- 
pipe  and  unprotected  combustible  materials  should  not  be  less  than  IS 
inches. 

Note:  If  clearance  is  less  than  18  inches,  pipe  should  be  covered  with  at 
least  2  inches  of  magnesia  lagging  or  its  equivalent,  or  woodwork  pro- 
tected as  above.      In  no  event  should  the  clearance  be  less  than  9   inches. 

Hot  Air  Pipes:  Pipes  should  be  of  metal.  Horizontal  pipes  leading  from 
furnace  should  not  be  less  than  6  inches  from  combustible  material. 
If  less  than  6  inches,  woodwork  should  be  protected  with  loose  fitting 
tin,  or  pipe  covered  with  at  least  y2  inch  of  corrugated  asbestos.  If 
so  protected,  clearance  may  be  reduced  to  3  inches. 

Pipes  should  not  be  placed  in  a  combustible  partition  nor  enter  a 
combustible  enclosure  at  a  distance  less  than  8  feet  horizontally  from 
the  furnace. 

Pipes  passing  thru  combustible  partitions  or  floors  or  located  in 
closets  should  be  double  walled  with  an  air  space  of  at  least  1  inch 
between. 

Pipes  contained  in  combustible  partitions  should  be  double  walled 
with  an  air  space  of  at  least  y2  inch  between  or  have  a  covering  of  not 
less  than  y2  inch  of  corrugated  asbestos.  Clearance  between  outer  pipe 
or  surface  of  covering  to  wooden  studding  should  be  not  less  than  1\'2 
inches.  Plaster  covering  portion  of  partition  containing  pipes  should 
be  on  metal  lath. 

Cold  Air  Pipes:      Pipe  should  be  of  metal  or  other  incombustible  material. 

Registers:  Registers  placed  in  woodwork  or  combustible  floors  should  be 
surrounded  with  a  border  of  incombustible  material  not  less  than  2 
inches  wide. 

Register  boxes  should  be  metal  double  walled  with  at  least  1  inch 
air  space  between  or  single  walled  covered  with  asbestos,  not  less  than 
Vs  inch  thick.  Clearance  between  outer  wall  or  surface  of  covering 
should  be  not  less  than  2  inches.  If  less  than  2  inches  woodwork  should 
be  covered  with  tin  within  a  distance  of  2  inches. 

One  register  should  be  fastened  open  or  be  without  valve  or  louvers 
to  prevent  overheating. 


115 


B.2. 


ALL    EXPOSED    WOODWORK. 

METAL    COVERED 

UBLE    METAL  PIPE 
METAL  LATH  4.  PLASTER 


CLtARANCE  TO 
COMBUSTIBLE  MATERIAL' 


FLOOR.  IF  COMBUSTIBLE. 
SHOULD  BE  PROTECTED  AS 
SHOWN   OR  Br   THREE  COURSES 
OF  BRICK.  WITH  MIDDLE  COURSE 
LAID   CROSSWISE. ON  EOCE.ANB  KITH 
SPACES  BETWEEN   ROWS  TO  FORM 
YENTILATINC-    DUCTS. 


HOT  AIR    FURNACE 


116 


Installation  of  Hot  Air  Furnaces 
(pipeless) 

Floors:  Floors,  if  combustible,  should  be  protected  by  two  courses  of  4- 
inch  hollow  tile  crossed  with  boiler  iron  on  top,  or  three  courses  of 
brick,  with  middle  course  laid  crosswise  and  on  edge,  with  ventilating 
spaces,  left  open  at  ends,  between.  Protection  should  extend  even 
with  furnace  at  sides,  front  and  rear,  and  in  addition,  if  other  than  gas, 
electricity,  or  liquid  fuel  is  used,  floor,  for  a  distance  of  18  inches  in 
front,  should  be  protected  by  a  layer  of  ii-inch  asbestos  covered  with 
sheet  metal  or  its  equivalent. 

Lateral  and  Vertical  Clearances:  Clearances  between  furnace  and  unpro- 
tected materials  at  sides,  front  and  rear  should  be   as  follows: 

At  sides   and  rear 18  inches 

In  front    48  inches 

Note:     If  clearances   are   less   than   those   specified  above,   combustible 

materials  should  be  protected  as  follows: 

At  sides,  rear  or  in  front:  Woodworking  should  be  protected  by  a 
layer  of  not  less  than  %-inch  asbestos  with  a  covering  of  sheet 
metal  supported  so  as  to  leave  an  air  space  of  1  inch,  or  by  a 
layer  of  i^-inch  asbestos  board  supported  to  leave  at  least  a 
1-inch  air  space.  In  no  event  should  the  clearances  be  less  than 
one-half  of  those  specified  above. 

Breech ings:  Clearance  between  metal  breechings  and  unprotected  com- 
bustible materials  should  be  not  less  than  18  inches. 

Note:  If  clearance  is  less  than  18  inches,  pipe  should  be  covered  with 
at  least  2  inches  of  magnesia  lagging  or  its  equivalent,  or  wood- 
work protected  as  above.  In  no  event  should  the  clearance  be  less 
than  9  inches. 


in 


B.2K 


floor. if  cohb.'St.b.e    s-iUiO  »f.  "Rrtrc: 

«  5K!**   OR  BY  TWO  COUR5CS  OF*    MCH   HOLLO* 
TILE  CR055E;  *  TH  BO  LCR  IRON  ON  TOP 


HOT  AIR    FURNACE 

PIPE  LESS. 


1J8 


Installation  of  Ordinary  Stoves 

Floor:  Floor  under  ordinary  stoves,  with  legs  less  than  4  inches  high 
should  be  protected  by  two  courses  of  4-inch  hollow  tile  crossed  with 
boiler  iron  oh  top,  or  three  courses  of  brick  with  the  middle  course  laid 
crosswise  and  on  edge,  with  ventilating  spaces,  left  open  at  the  ends, 
between.  Protection  should  extend  even  with  stove  at  the  sides,  front 
and  rear  and,  in  addition,  if  other  than  gas,  electricity  or  liquid  fuel 
is  used,  floor,  for  a  distance  of  18  inches  in  front,  should  be  protected 
by  a  layer  of  ^-inch  asbestos  covered  with  sheet  metal  or  its  equivalent. 
Floor  under  ordinary  stoves  with  legs  4  inches  or  more  high,  if  com- 
bustible, may  be  protected  by  a  layer  of  sheet  metal  in  place  of  the  ma- 
terials above  specified. 

Lateral  and  Vertical  Clearances:  Clearance  between  stove  and  unprotected 
combustible  materials  above,  and  at  sides,  front  and  rear  should  con- 
form to  the  following  requirements: 

Above    18  inches 

At  sides  and  rear 18  inches 

In  front   48  inches 

Note  1 :  If  clearances  are  less  than  those  specified,  combustible  wood- 
work should  be  protected  by  a  layer  of  %-inch  asbestos  or  its  equiv- 
alent covered  with  metal  so  supported  as  to  leave  an  air  space  of 
one  inch;  or  by  a  covering  of  i/i-inch  asbestos  or  its  equivalent 
supported  so  as  to  leave  an  air  space  of  one  inch.  In  no  event 
should  the  clearances  be  less  than  one-half  of  those  specified  above. 

Note  2:  Stove  should  be  provided  with  a  metal  shield  set  away  18 
inches  at  sides  and  rear  where  inflammable  materials  can  come  in 
contact  with  same. 

Stovepipe:  Clearance  between  stovepipe  and  unprotected  combustible  ma- 
terials should  be  not  less  than  18  inches.  Stovepipes,  passing  thru 
combustible  partitions,  windows,  sides  of  buildings,  ceilings,  or  roof 
should  be  provided  with  at  least  6  inches  of  clearance  to  combustible 
materials. 


119 


120 


Installation  of  Small  Ranges 

Floor:  Floor,  under  small  ranges  with  legs  less  than  4  inches  high,  should 
be  protected  by  two  courses  of  4-inch  hollow  tile  crossed  with  boiler 
iron  on  top,  or  three  courses  of  brick  with  the  middle  course  laid  cross- 
wise and  on  edge,  with  ventilating  spaces,  left  open  at  the  ends,  be- 
tween. Protection  should  extend  even  with  stove  at  the  sides,  front  and 
rear  and,  in  addition,  if  other  than  gas,  electricity  or  liquid  fuel  is  used, 
floor,  for  a  distance  of  18  inches  in  front,  should  be  protected  by  ^4-inch 
asbestos  covered  with  sheet  metal  or  its  equivalent. 

Floor,  under  small  ranges  with  legs  not  less  than  4  inches  high, 
if  combustible,  may  be  protected  by  a  layer  of  sheet  metal  in  place  of 
the  materials  above  specified. 

Lateral  Clearances:  Clearance  between  range  and  combustible  materials 
at  sides,  front  and  rear  should  conform  to  the  following  minimum  re- 
quirements: 

At   sides  and  rear 18  inches 

In  front   48  inches 

Note  1:  If  clearances  are  less  than  those  specified,  combustible  wood- 
work should  be  protected  by  a  layer  of  %-inch  asbestos  or  its  equiv- 
alent covered  with  metal  so  supported  as  to  leave  an  air  space  of 
one  inch;  or  by  a  covering  of  &-inch  asbestos  or  its  equivalent  sup- 
ported so  as  to  leave  an  air  space  of  one  inch.  In  no  event  should 
the  clearance  be  less  than  one-half  of  those  specified  above. 

Stovepipe:  Clearance  between  stovepipe  and  unprotected  combustible  ma- 
terial should  be  not  less  than  18  inches. 

Stovepipes  passing  thru  combustible  partitions,  windows,  sides 
of  buildings,  ceilings  or  roof  should  be  provided  with  at  least  6  inches 
of  clearance  to  combustible  materials. 


121 


122 


Installation  of  Large  Ranges 

Floor:  Floor,  if  combustible,  should  be  protected  by  two  courses  of  4-inch 
hollow  tile  crossed  with  boiler  iron  on  top,  or  three  courses  of  brick 
with  middle  course  laid  crosswise  and  on  edge,  with  ventilating  spaces, 
left  open  at  the  ends,  between.  Protection  should  extend  even  with 
range  at  the  sides,  front  and  rear  and,  in  addition,  if  other  than  gas, 
electricity  or  liquid  fuel  is  used,  floor,  for  a  distance  of  18  inches  in 
front  should  be  protected  by  a  layer  of  ^-inch  asbestos  covered  with 
sheet  metal  or  its  equivalent. 

Lateral  Clearances:  Clearance  between  range  and  unprotected  combustible 
materials  at  sides,  front  and  rear  should  conform  to  the  following  mini- 
mum requirements : 

At  sides  and  rear 18  inches 

In  front   48  inches 

Note  1:  If  clearances  are  less  than  those  specified,  combustible  wood- 
work should  be  protected  by  a  layer  of  y8-inch  asbestos  or  its  equiv- 
alent covered  with  metal  so  supported  as  to  leave  an  air  space  of 
one  inch;  or  by  a  covering  of  14-inch  asbestos  or  its  equivalent  sup- 
ported so  as  to  leave  an  air  space  of  one  inch.  In  no  event  should 
the  clearances  be  less  than  one-half  of  those  specified  above. 

Breeching  or  Smokepipe:      Clearance  between  metal  breechings  and  unpro- 
protected  combustible  materials  should  not  be  less  than  18  inches. 

Note:  If  clearance  is  less  than  18  inches,  pipe  should  be  covered  with 
at  least  2  inches  of  magnesia  lagging  or  woodwork  protected  as 
above.     In  no  case  should  the  clearance  be  less  than  9  inches. 

Ventilation:  Hood  should  be  constructed  of  No.  16  gauge  iron  securely 
riveted  to  angle  iron  frame.  Clearance  between  top  of  hood  and  un- 
protected combustible  material  should  be  at  least  18  inches.  If  clear- 
ance is  less  than  18  inches,  hood  should  be  covered  with  at  least  2 
inches  of  asbestos  cement.  In  no  case  should  clearance  be  less  than 
6  inches. 

Pipe  from  hood  should  enter  8-inch  brick  flue  used  for  no  other  pur- 
pose, or  metal  flue  outside  of  building  with  vertical  clearance  of  18 
inches  and  lateral  clearance  of  6  inches  from  combustible  materials 
and  extending  6  feet  above  roof. 


123 


B.2.O. 


ALTERNATE  CONSTRUCTS 
VENTILATOR 
THRU    ROOF 


METAL  THIMBLE   & 
SUPPORTING    RIN&S 


TWO  COURSES  OF 4" TILE  LAID  CROS^WrfEXVy 
CROSSED    ONTOP  WITH   BOILER    IRON.        X 

OR    THREE   COURSES  OF   BRICK.  WITH   MIDDLE 
COURSE    LAID  CROSSWISE    AND  OM  EDGE.  WITH 
VEMTILATING  SPACCS  LEFT    OPEN  ON  END3« 


NSTALLATION 

OF 


LARGE    RANGE.  V^ 


124 


Installation  of  Motion  Picture  Machines 

All  motion  picture  machines  using  inflammable  films  should  be  enclosed 
in  a  booth  meeting  the  following  minimum  requirements: 

Size:     Booth  should  be  not  less  than  6x8  feet  in  size  and  7  feet  high. 

Walls:  Walls  should  be  constructed  of  one  of  the  following  or  equivalent 
materials: 

Masonry  not  less  than  8  inches  thick,  4  inches  if  reinforced  con- 
crete; gypsum  blocks  plastered  on  both  sides;  metal  lath  and  cement 
plaster,  not  less  than  2  inches  thick,  supported  by  incombustible  mem- 
bers; or 

A  metal  framing  of  l^xl^xi/i  inch  angle  and  tee  irons,  securely 
braced  and  riveted,  with  panels  of  asbestos  board  at  least  14  inch  thick 
fastened  to  frame  with  bolts  spaced  not  more  than  6  inches  on  centers, 
or  of  No.  20  gauge  sheet  metal  fastened  to  frame  with  bolts  or  rivets 
spaced  not  more  than  3  inches  on  centers.  Inner  face  of  angles  and 
tees  should  present  a  smooth  surface  at  joints.  Asbestos  or  metal 
panels  should  be  continuous  between  angles  and  tees  and  have  no  open 
seams. 

Ceiling:      Ceiling  or  top  should  be  similar  in  construction  to  walls. 

Floors:  Floors,  if  not  fireproof  or  incombustible,  should  be  of  matched 
lumber  not  less  than  %  inch  thick  with  an  overlay  of  asbestos  board 
or  equivalent  material  not  less  than  %  inch  thick.  If  booth  is  con- 
structed of  a  metal  framing,  floor  should  rest  on  bottom  flange  of  base 
angles. 

Door:  Door  should  be  of  at  least  2x5  feet  constructed  of  materials  similar 
or  equivalent  to  those  of  the  walls. 

Openings:  Openings  for  operator's  view  or  thru  which  picture  is  shown 
should  not  be  larger  than  6x12  inches.  Each  opening  should  be  pro- 
vided with  a  gravity  door  constructed  of  No.  12  gauge  metai  overlap- 
ping opening  1  inch  on  all  sides,  when  closed,  and  arranged  to  slide  in 
grooves.  Door  should  be  held  open  by  fusible  links  placed  in  series 
with  fine  cords  so  arranged  so  that  one  link  will  be  over  each  machine. 

Ventilation:  Inlets,  not  less  than  3x16  inches,  should  be  placed  on  all  but 
front  sides  of  booth  and  not  more  than  3  inches  above  the  floor.  Open- 
ings should  be  covered  on  the  outside  by  wire  screen  of  not  more  than 
%  mesh  and  on  the  inside  by  gravity  doors  similar  to  those  described 
for  Openings. 

Outlet  should  not  be  less  than  12  inches  in  diameter  leading  from 
the  center  of  ceiling  and  vented  to  the  outside.  Clearance  between  the 
vent  pipe  and  unprotected  combustible  material  should  be  not  less  than 
6  inches. 

Shelves:  Shelves,  furniture  and  fixtures  should  be  of  incombustible  con 
struction. 

Wiring:  Electrical  wiring  should  be  in  accord  with  the  rules  embodied  in 
the  National  Electrical  Code. 


125 


120 

I  could  go  on  indefinitely  and  speak  further  on  mechanical  in- 
stallations, inasmuch  as  we  have  barely  scratched  the  surface.  There 
are  probably  50  or  60  more  examples  we  could  give,  but  I  see  I  am 
already  beyond  my  time.  If  there  is  any  further  information  that  you 
gentlemen  should  desire  you  can  obtain  the  requirements  and  speci- 
fications for  installations  of  these  various  devices  from  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  New  York,  for  they  will  be  more  than 
pleased  to  favor  you,  or  else  you  can  provide  yourself  with  a  copy 
of  this  booklet  "The  Analytic  System  Handbook  on  Fire  Protection," 
and  if  you  care  to  you  can  write  direct  to  the  Western  Actuarial  Bu- 
reau, Box  1089,  Chicago.     I  thank  you.     (Applause.) 

Chairman   Knight  :     Let's   have  a   five   minute   recess. 
(Recess  taken). 

Chairman  Knight  :  The  next  subject  on  this  morning's  pro- 
gram is  Electrical  Installations  in  Buildings,  by  Victor  H.  Tousley, 
of  the  department  of  gas  and  electricity  of  the  city  of  Chicago.  I 
take  pleasure  in  calling  on  Mr.  Tousley.     (Applause.) 

ELECTRICAL  INSTALLATIONS 

By  Victor  H.  Tousley,   Chief  Electrical  Inspector,   Department  of 
Gas  and  Electricity,  Chicago 

It  is  going  to  be  a  little  difficult  for  me  to  get  into  the  minds  of 
you  men  and  see  just  what  part  of  the  electrical  inspection  work  might 
interest  you  most.  I  have  charge  of  the  electrical  inspection  work  of 
the  city  of  Chicago  and,  of  course,  our  work  is  of  a  nature  somewhat 
different  than  that  which  you  men  get.  The  principles  are  quite  the 
same,  but  their  working  out  is,  possibly,  quite  a  little  bit  different. 
However,  if  what  I  say  to  you  gives  you  one  or  two  ideas  and  will 
benefit  you  in  your  work,  I  feel  the  hour  will  have  been  well  spent. 

The  matter  of  electrical  inspections  or  protection  from  the  electri- 
cal standpoint  is  divided  into  two  general  classes :  The  protection 
from  the  standpoint  of  safety  to  life,  and  the  protection  from  the 
standpoint  of  fire  hazard. 

Peculiarly  enough  the  fire  hazard,  which  is  really  the  least  im- 
portant of  the  two,  has  always  had  the  preference.  Safety  from  the 
life  standpoint,  everyone  will  admit,  is  of  much  greater  importance 
than  safety  from  the  fire  standpoint  and  yet  the  city  of  Chicago  has 
been  making  inspections  I  think  since  L880,  forty-live  years  ago,  and 
originally  those  inspections  were  under  the  direction  of  what  was 
known  as  the  superintendent  of  telegraph,  who  was  the  electrical  man 
of  the  fire  department  and  directly  under  the  lire  marshal,  but  had 
charge  of  the  electrical  equipment  of  the  lire  department.  This  was 
later  changed  to  a  department  of  its  own  and  is  now  maintained  as  a 
separate  department. 

However,  in  the  old  days  there  were  practically  no  rules  which 
had  to  do  with  safety  to  life;  the  rules  had  exclusively  to  do  with  fire. 
I  do  not  think  there  was  a  rule  in  the  original  code  which  had  to  do 
with  safety  to  life.  The  matter  of  electric  hazard  from  the  life  stand- 
point is  of  more  or  less  recent  development. 


127 

The  first  rules  designed  to  cover  electrical  construction  or  installa- 
tion were  those  gotten  up  by  the  Fire  Underwriters  in  about  1892  or 
1893.  During  the  Chicago  World's  Fair  there  was  a  convention  of 
various  fire  insurance  people  throughout  the  country  and  at  that  time 
they  started  what  later  became  the  National  Electrical  Code.  This  is 
another  reason  why  the  rules  had  to  do  more  directly  with  fire  than 
life,  because  they  were  originated  by  the  fire  insurance  interests. 

In  the  last  seven  or  eight  years  the  matter  of  the  protection  from 
the  life  standpoint  has  been  taken  up  by  the  national  bureau  of  stand- 
ards and  there  is  now  published  by  the  bureau  what  is  known  as  the 
Safety  to  Life  Code,  which  deals  almost  exclusively  with  the  safety 
from  the  life  standpoint  and  covers  not  only  the  subject  from  the 
users'  or  consumers'  standpoint,  but  also  goes  into  detail  for  the  pro- 
tection of  workmen  around  a  factory,  station  or  plant. 

As  time  goes  on  you  will  find  the  matter  of  safety  from  the  life 
standpoint  is  to  become  much  more  important  than  it  has  been  in  the 
years  past  and  rightfully  so,  because  the  most  important  duty  we  have 
is  the  saving  of  human  life.  The  matter  of  saving  property  is  more 
or  less  secondary. 

I  don't  know  how  much  you  men  do  in  the  line  of  electrical  in- 
spections, but  if  you  are  in  the  fire  departments  or  if  you  are  city 
officials  it  devolves  upon  you,  if  there  is  no  one  else  looking  after  that 
work,  to  take  up  the  matter  of  making  electrical  inspections.  The 
electrical  inspection  is  an  absolute  necessity.  The  number  of  fires  that 
occur  from  electric  wires  is  really  enormous.  Now,  I  don't  mean  by 
that  that  electricity  is  a  hazardous  material,  or  whatever  it  is  you 
call  "electricity." 

I  am  reminded  of  a  story  of  a  college  professor  who  had  a  student 
in  his  class  who  used  to  fall  asleep  and  if  the  professor  would  call 
on  him  he  would  always  rise  up  with,  "Professor,  I  knew,  but  have 
forgotten."  So  one  day  this  particular  student, — it  was  a  hot,  warm 
day  like  today, — this  student  was  taking  his  usual  nap  and  the  pro- 
fessor thought  he  would  play  a  little  trick  on  him  so  he  called  him  by 
name  and  says,  "John,  what  is  electricity?"  John  woke  up  at  the 
sound  of  his  name,  but  he  did  not  want  to  let  on  that  he  did  not  know 
the  question  and  said,  "I  knew,  but  I  forgot."  The  professor  says, 
"Here's  the  only  man  in  the  world  who  knew  what  electricity  is  and 
he  has  forgotten."  When  I  stalled  on  what  electricity  was  it  recalled 
that  little  incident. 

Electricity  is  undoubtedly  the  cause  of  many  fires  that  we  know 
of  and  many  we  don't  know  of,  but  I  don't  want  to  convey  the  im- 
pression it  is  unusually  or  particularly  dangerous.  If  you  compare 
a  Christmas  tree  lighted  with  candles  with  one  lighted  by  electricity, 
you  know  there  is  no  comparison  so  far  as  safety  is  concerned.  And, 
you  know  electric  lights  in  a  house  or  building  of  this  kind  are  safer 
than  gas  and  oil  lamps.  But  that  does  not  mean  electricity  hasn't  cer- 
tain hazards.  Electricity  does  start  many  fires;  many  fires  we  know 
of  and  many  we  don't  know  of. 

I  know  a  number  of  years  ago  when  making  inspections  in  Chi- 
cago we  had  a  peculiar  epidemic,  you  might  call  it.  of   fires  occurring 


128 

in  a  class  of  buildings  wired  about  1892  or  1893.  In  those  days  the 
buildings  were  wired  with  the  wires  pulled  through  the  joists  with  no 
bushings  of  any  kind.  It  got  us  rather  excited.  We  had  a  number 
of  houses  wired  in  that  manner  and  a  careful  investigation  was  made. 
These  tires  occurred  in  the  night  time,  nearly  every  one  of  them.  We 
found  in  one  of  the  houses,  where  a  fire  had  occurred  about  two  or 
three  in  the  morning,  wire-  run  down  the  side  of  a  joist  to  a  switch 
in  the  dining  room.  A  wooden  cleat  fastened  the  wires  onto  the  joist 
and  at  one  point  between  the  two  wires,  which  were  separated  about 
two  and  one-half  inches,  the  wood  was  all  charred  and  showed  that 
about  the  same  thing  was  going  on  that  goes  on  in  the  case  of  a  hot 
steam  pipe  against  wood.  Undoubtedly,  the, slow  leaking  of  current 
charred  the  wood,  ultimately  setting  tire  to  that  house.  We  were  in- 
structed at  that  time  to  condemn  any  buildings  we  might  find  wired 
in  that  manner. 

Undoubtedly,  many  houses  that  have  taken  fire  have  taken  fire 
from  some  such  thing  as  that.  It  is  rather  hard  to  determine,  but  yet 
exists. 

There  is  another  matter  incidental  to  electrical  inspections 
that  is  the  matter  of  economy.  If  you  men  make  inspections  in  your 
own  towns  or  cities  or  contemplate  doing  so  you  are  not  causing  a 
needless  expense,  but  are  accomplishing  an  economical  result.  A  build- 
ing wired  in  accordance  with  the  National  Code  is  an  economical 
installation.  Curing  the  last  month  an  electrical  engineer  of  one 
of  the  large  companies  operating  in  Chicago  made  the  direct  state- 
ment to  me,  and  agreed  to  put  it  in  writing,  that  compliance 
with  the  rules  of  our  department  in  the  original  installation  of  the 
work,  and  compliance  with  the  rules  in  the  maintenance  of  the  work, 
resulted  in  an  economical  installation.  The  first  cost  might  be  a 
little  greater,  but  the  maintenance  cost  was  much  less  and  the  losses 
from  the  shutting  down  of  parts  of  the  plant  were  reduced  to  a 
minimum. 

An  engineer  came  to  our  office  with  an  elaborate  set  of  plans  cover- 
ing a  new  plant  in  the  city  of  Chicago.  They  had  their  own  generating 
plant  and  a  large  switchl  oard  and  were  installing  a  temporary  plating 
and  buffing  equipment.  I  asked  the  idea  of  that.  Me  stated  that  on  the 
main  switchboard  in  this  plant,  which  was  a  Ford  plant,  everything 
was  polished  just  as  if  it  were  going  into  the  main  ballroom  of  a  hotel. 
Then  he  showed  the  plans  with  numerous  circuit  breakers,  switches, 
and  fuses,  costing  in  some  cases  several  thousand  dollars  apiece.  I 
made  a  remark  to  the  effect  that  Ford  did  not  apparently  use  the 
same  system  in  installing  electric  equipment  as  he  did  in  constructing 
his  cars  and  asked,  "I  low  do  you  explain  that?"  Ilf  said.  "Maybe 
be  does.  A  shut  down  of  thirty  minutes  in  a  Ford  plant  has  to  be  made 
up.  Their  cars  are  sold  way  ahead  of  production  and  promises  of 
delivery  made  for  certain  days.  A  -hut  down  in  any  one  department 
for  a  half  an  hour  would  delay  the  completion  of  machines  that  should 
be  finished  in  that  half  hour  and  the  delav  must  be  made  up  or  the 
whole  schedule  would  be  disarranged."  While  the  Ford  is  probably 
the  cheapest   car  you  can   buy,   it   is  one  of  the  most   economical   and 


129 

reliable  and  so  it  is  with  this  electric  plant  Ford  puts  in.  While  much 
more  elaborate  and  costing  much  more  money  in  comparison  with 
ordinary  plants,  it  is  put  there  for  the  same  purpose,  to  make  the  plant 
reliable  and  dependable. 

A  compliance  with  the  rules  of  the  National  Electrical  Code  will 
get  for  whoever  cornplies  with  them  that  same  result.  They  will  ob- 
tain an  installation  safe  from  a  fire  standpoint  and  economical  to  main- 
tain. 

The  matter  of  safety  to  life,  as  I  say,  is  receiving  more  attention 
of  late  and  it  will  receive  greater  attention  as  years  go  on.  I  will 
show  you  later  a  slide  which  will  indicate  to  you  a  little  bit  about 
the  development  in  the  rules  of  electrical  installations. 

I  want  to  talk  to  you  about  the  National  Electrical  Code.  I 
understand  you  had  on  your  program  yesterday  Mr.  Dana  Pierce, 
who  talked  to  you  from  the  standpoint  of  Underwriters'  Laboratories 
and  undoubtedly  he  covered  in  his  talk  to  you  the  matter  of  the  Na- 
tional Electrical  Code,  but  not  knowing  what  he  said  I  want  to  speak 
on  it  again  even  though  it  is  repeating.  All  electrical  rules  of  this 
country,  so  far  as  fire  rules  are  concerned,  are  based  on  the  National 
Electrical  Code.  The  National  Electrical  Code  is  a  code  which  is 
formulated  by  what  is  known  as  the  electrical  committee  of  the  Na- 
tional Fire  Protection  association,  and  has  between  thirty  and  forty 
members,  representing  every  branch  of  the  electrical  industry  and 
the  electrical  code  is  a  standard  of  what  is  known  as  the  American 
Engineering  Standards  committee,  organized  a  few  years  ago  to  draw 
up  standards  for  all  types  of  equipment.  They  have  a  standard  for 
fire  hose  and  they  are  considering  a  standard  for  the  traffic  signs  used 
in  these  streets,  and  such  things  as  that.  The  National  Electrical 
Code,  as  now  published,  is  approved  and  adopted  by  the  American 
Engineering  Standards  committee. 

Any  code  to  be  approved  by  the  American  Engineering  Stand- 
ards committee  must  have  a  representation  that  is  broad  enough  to 
cover  every  phase  of  the  subject  and  the  electrical  committee,  which 
consists  of  about  forty  members,  is  so  organized  as  to  take  in  every 
interested  branch  of  the  electrical  field.  This  committee  meets  every 
two  years  and  revises  the  electrical  code  ;  they  meet  every  year,  but 
the  code  is  revised  only  every  two  years. 

Now,  when  you  make  an  electrical  inspection,  if  you  make  it  on 
the  basis  of  the  National  Electrical  Code,  you  have  back  of  you  a  code 
which  I  do  not  think  has  a  parallel  in  any  other  industry  or  in  any 
other  part  of  the  electrical  field.  You  have  your  building  code,  vour 
fire  code  and  your  plumbing  code,  but  in  the  electrical  code  vou  have 
this  development  of  years  and  the  careful  consideration  of  the  repre- 
sentatives on  this  committee.  You  have  back  of  you  a  code  which  is 
more  generally  used  and  more  strictly  enforced  than  any  code  of  a 
similar  nature  in  this  country  and  when  you  inspect  a  building  and 
condemn  a  piece  of  apparatus  or  piece  of  wiring  because  it  violates 
the  code,  you  have  back  of  you  something  that  no  person  can  dispute; 
the  years  back  of  the  code  and  the  thought  back  of  the  code  mean  that 
that  rule  is  not  a  whim  or  chance;  it  means   something,  even  though 


130 

the  meaning  may  not  be  exactly  understood  at  a  glance.  You  have 
back  of  you  all  that  is  meant  by  this  National  Electrical  Code. 

In  this  connection  there  is  a  point  that  might  be  well  to  call  to  your 
attention;  that  is  the  matter  of  variation  from  the  National  Electrical 
Code.  A  great  difficulty  exists  at  the  present  time  in  this  country, 
so  far  as  electrical  work  is  concerned,  by  the  variations  in  the  inter- 
pretations of  the  electrical  code.  The  city  of  Chicago  and  many  cities 
have  rules  varying  from  the  National  Electrical  Code.  But  on  the 
principles  of  the  code  and  on  the  main  rules  of  the  code,  it  is  a  pretty 
bad  thing  to  vary  from  it. 

You  men  who  are  connected  with  the  public  service  company  know 
the  experience  gone  through  in  the  last  few  years  on  meter  fittings. 
The  number  of  fittings  a  manufacturer  of  switches  has  to  make  today 
is  enormous.  He  has  to  make  one  for  one  town  and  another  for  an- 
other town  and  they  have  such  a  variety  that  it  must  increase  tremen- 
dously the  cost  of  that  device.  Unfortunately  there  is  no  good  way 
at  the  present  time  to  get  together  on  the  standardizing  of  electrical 
fittings. 

I  would  like  to  call  to  your  attention  another  matter  and  I  think 
this  would  be  a  good  place  to  talk  about  it.  I  am  a  member  of  what 
is  known  as  the  Western  Association  of  Electrical  Inspectors.  That 
is  an  association  covering  the  whole  western  country,  from  Ohio  west. 
We  have  two  or  three  hundred  members,  our  next  annual  meeting  will 
be  in  Chicago  this  coming  January.  I  happen  to  be  chairman  of  the 
executive  committee  of  this  association  and  we  are  preparing  for  chap- 
ters. Our  executive  committee  is  taking  up  the  matter  of  arranging 
for  chapters.  \Ye  have  applications  from  the  Pacific  Coast  and  one 
from  Michigan  and  one  from  Wisconsin  and  it  occurred  to  me  we 
ought  to  have  an  Illinois  chapter  of  this  Western  Association  of  Elec- 
trical Inspectors.  There  is  now  in  Illinois  an  organization  known  as 
the  Municipal  League,  which  covers,  as  I  understand  it,  every  phase  of 
municipal  work.  It  might  be  possible  to  get  some  kind  of  a  combina- 
tion between  that  league  of  municipalities  and  the  Western  associa- 
tion whereby  those  interested  in  electrical  inspection  of  this  state 
should  get  together. 

I  came  last  night  from  Springfield  and  you  men  know  what  is 
going  on  at  Springfield.  We,  in  the  city  of  Chicago,  have  been  mak- 
ing inspections  for  forty-five  years.  We  have  an  anniversary  every 
year  in  December  and  last  December  was  the  forty-second  anniversary. 
Many  of  the  cities  of  the  state  have  been  making  these  inspections  for 
many  years,  but  last  October  the  supreme  court  declared  our  city  had 
no  right  to  charge  fees  for  inspection  work.  The  supreme  court  de- 
cision did  not  say  that  they  hadn't  the  right  to  make  electrical  inspec- 
tions, but  it  is  my  own  personal  belief  the  only  reason  thev  did  not  say 
so  was  that  they  were  not  asked.  The  case  in  the  supreme  court  came 
from  Chicago  and  raised  the  point  that  the  collection  of  inspection  fees 
and  licenses  of  electricians  was  illegal.  That's  the  only  question  the 
supreme  court  had  to  answer  and  it  is  only  a  short  jump  from  that 
point  to  where  the  supreme  court  would  say  the  cities  in  the  state  did 
not  have  the  right  to  in  any  way  regulate  electrical  equipment. 


131 

There  is  now  before  the  legislature,  and  we  have  hopes  of  it  going 
through,  a  bill  to  give  the  cities  the  right  to  make  these  inspections. 
That  bill  passed  the  senate  and  is  now  on  third  reading  in  the  house 
and  ought  to  come  up  this  morning.  When  that  bill  goes  through,  if 
it  does  and  I  hope  it  will,  it  seems  to  me  it  is  the  duty  of  every  mu- 
nicipality in  this  state,  no  matter  how  large  or  small,  to  control  the 
electrical  wiring.  It  seems  to  me  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  show  that 
any  man  in  the  municipal  government  who  is  charged  with  the  duty 
of  protecting  citizens  from  electrical  hazards  is  guilty  of  malfeasance 
in  office  if  he  fails  to  do  so.  because  the  hazards  of  electricity  are  too 
well  known  to  be  in  any  way  questioned,  and  1  hope  you  men  represent- 
ing the  municipalities,  whether  as  electrical  inspectors  or  in  the  fire 
departments,  will  get  after  this  electrical  inspection  in  your  own  mu- 
nicipalities and  see  that  it  is  done. 

If  any  of  you  men  happen  to  be  officials  of  cities,  towns  or  villages. 
there  is  only  one  way  to  do  this.  Draw  up  some  kind  of  an  ordinance 
in  your  city  to  provide  for  the  taking  out  of  permits  and  provide 
for  the  inspection.  You  can  get  money  to  maintain  the  department. 
The  department  in  Chicago  has  been  more  than  self-sustaining,  hut 
the  people  paying  money  to  the  city  of  Chicago  have  obtained  a  service 
they  could  not  otherwise  have  gotten  for  ten  or  fifteen  times  the  amount 
they  pay  for  it. 

You  can  inspect  a  job  of  wiring  in  a  small  bungalow  for  mavbe 
$3.  If  the  owner  was  to  go  to  some  engineering  concern  and  ask  for 
an  inspection  of  the  wiring  of  the  property  it  might  cost  $20  or  more 
and  he  would  not  get  the  equivalent  inspection  of  an  inspector  doing 
this  regularly,  so  you  are  doing  the  people  a  real  service.  I  think  it  is 
for  the  good  of  all  of  us  that  every  city,  town  and  village  control 
these  electrical  installations,  whether  through  electrical  inspections  or 
through  the  fire  department,  but  I  think  it  should  be  done  in  a  syste- 
matic, logical  method,  by  means  of  permits  or  city  ordinances  or  what- 
ever rules  are  necessary  to  do  it. 

One  of  the  most  common  causes  of  electrical  fires  is  flexible  cords. 
I  have  here  a  memorandum  of  the  number  of  fires  that  start  from 
electric  cords.  In  1923,  out  of  726  fires  in  Chicago  from  electrical 
causes,  twenty-seven  were  caused  from  flexible  cords.  In  1922,  out 
of  26*J  fires,  twenty-seven  were  caused  from  flexible  cords.  In  1921, 
out  of  14T  fires  about  ten  per  cent  of  the  fires  were  caused  from  flexible 
cords.  I  am  going  to  show  you  by  slides  the  use  of  the  flexible  cords 
and  want  to  show  to  you  how  a  small  thing  may  cause  considerable 
trouble. 

We  had  a  fire  start  from  a  cord  supplying  a  light  in  a  hallway  in 
an  apartment  building.  This  cord  shorted  and  started  a  fire.  The 
tenants  could  not  get  out  the  back  of  the  building  and  a  woman  burned 
to  death.  That  simple  piece  of  cord  in  this  case  caused  the  death  of 
this  woman.  I  will  show  you  later  some  slides  of  another  fire  that 
had  to  do  with  cords. 

Another  common  cause  of  fire  is  the  burning  out  of  motors.  Out 
of   286   fires   in    \{.)'2'A,    forty-two   fires,  that's   about   one-seventh,    were 


132 

caused  by  burning  out  of  motors.  The  losses  in  that  year  were  $22,700. 
Those  fires  are  all  in  Chicago.  In  L922,  there  were  350  fires  and 
twenty-five  were  caused  by  burning  out  of  motors. 

Another  very  common  cause  of  tire  is  overfusing.  You  know 
what  overfusing  means  to  an  electric  circuit.  Electric  heaters  left  in 
circuit  cause  seventeen  per  cent  of  the  fires  in  Chicago,  according  to 
the  last  annual  report. 

Another  very  common  cause  of  hre  is  overheating  of  contacts  and 
poor  joints. 

1  spoke  to  you  a  short  time  ago  about  a  fire  that  occurred  in  a 
building  where  the  wires  ran  down  the  side  of  a  wooden  joist.  An 
old  fire  insurance  inspector  gave  me  his  theory  as  to  the  cause  of  steam 
pipe  fires.  Whether  his  theory  is  right  or  wrong  I  do  not  know,  but 
it  sounds  logical  and  probably  has  merit.  He  said  in  his  investigations 
he  found  most  steam  pipe  fires  occurred  in  the  winter  after  the  build- 
ing was  closed  and  the  heat  shut  off.  What  brought  this  question  up 
was  the  investigation  of  a  fire  reported  to  have  been  caused  from 
crossed  wires.  YVe  finally  decided  the  fire  was  caused  by  a  steam  pipe 
in  a  box  enclosure  where  the  pipe  was  surrounded  with  sawdust.  His 
theory  was  this:  that  the  constant  heating  of  the  sawdust  around  the 
steam  pipe  sooner  or  later  charred  the  wood  and  in  the  winter  time 
when  the  pipes  were  hot  the  air  around  this  pipe  was  expanded,  but 
when  the  pipe  cooled  the  fresh  air  full  of  oxygen  was  drawn  in  and 
the  sawdust  was  ignited.  How  good  this  theory  is  I  do  not  know. 
but  it  sounds  logical. 

As  I  understand  it,  most  of  those  fires  are  caused  after  the  plants 
are  shut  down.  If  the  theory  stated  is  true  it  undoubtedly  explains 
the  cause  of  many  electrical  fires.  With  the  wire  against  woodwork, 
the  heat  and  leakage  of  current  gradually  char  the  woodwork  between 
the  wires,  then  at  some  later  period,  generally  cold  weather,  air  heavily 
laden  with  oxygen  gets  in  and  ignites  the  woodwork.  May  we  have 
the  slides  please?  These  slides  are  intended  to  represent  development 
in  electric  wiring.      (Shows  slides.) 

I  have  shown  these  slides  just  to  illustrate  what  can  sometimes 
happen  by  using  things  that  are  not  considered  dangerous.  You  know 
that  in  your  own  home  you  have  flexible  cords  that  have  been  in  use 
several  years  and  never  caused  a  fire.  There  is  no  doubt  in  my  mind 
that  in  the  case  illustrated  four  or  five  feet  of  flexible  cord  was  the 
cause  of  the  death  of  eight  people.  I  could  not  prove  this  before  a 
court,  but  I  listened  through  the  entire  inquest  which  consumed  almost 
a  week's  time,  and  there  is  no  question  in  my  mind  but  that  the  person 
who  ran  that  cord  out  through  that  door,  although  probably  innocent 
of  any  intentional  wrongdoing,  was  responsible  for  this  loss  of  life.  It 
show-  what  a  -mail  thing  can  cause  a  disastrous  tire. 

A-  I  -aid  before,  the  American  people  will  take  a  chance;  take  a 
chance  on  drinking  moonshine,  some  get  away  with  it  and  some  do  not. 
They  take  a  chance  driving  automobiles  and  300  have  been  killed  in 
Cook  county  so  far  this  war.  They  take  a  chance  on  cord  wiring. 
That's  a  wrong  thing  to  do.     You  have  a  responsibility  in  connection 


133 

with  this  and  it  is  up  to  you  to  educate  your  people  in  the  safe  mainte- 
nance of  electrical  wiring. 

I  want  to  thank  you  for  this  opportunity  of  talking  to  you  and  if 
you  have  gotten  anything  out  of  my  talk  I  feel  well  repaid.    (  Applause.) 

DISCUSSION 

Chairman  Knight:  Are  there  any  questions  you  would  like  to 
ask  Mr.  Tousley  at  this  time? 

Mr.  Wolf:     I  would  like  to  ask  Mr.  Tousley  a  question.     In  the 

early  part  of  his  speech  he  made  the  statement  the  National  Board  has 
drawn  up  a  schedule  of  rules  for  inspection  from  the  lire  standpoint 
and  in  later  years  they  diew  up  a  code  for  the  protection  of  life.  Max 
I  ask  when  that  code  for  the  protection  of  life  was  drawn  up? 

Mr.  Tousley  :  What  is  known  as  the  National  Electrical  Code  is 
the  hre  code.  The  National  Safety  Code  is  the  life  code.  That  is 
still  going  on.  It  was  drawn  up  by  the  bureau  of  standards  and  the 
work  probably  started  seven  or  eight  years  ago. 

Mr.  Wolf:  If  I  might  explain  my  question:  In  li)l!)  there 
was  no  such  code  in  regard  to  safety  and  I  got  in  bad.  Mr.  Gamber, 
I  think,  will  remember,  at  our  Fire  Prevention  Congress  in  Minne- 
apolis. I  was  asked  to  prepare  a  paper  and  1  did.  I  said  in  the  years 
the  National  Board  had  been  operating  they  got  up  hre  tests  showing 
how  to  light  tire,  telling  the  firemen  what  to  do,  hut  in  all  those  thou- 
sands of  dollars  spent  in  publishing  books  they  had  not  spent  a  penny 
in  trying  to  save  a  life;  everything  seemed  to  them  to  be  dollars  and 
cents.  I  got  in  bad.  so  much  so  that  when  I  dropped  into  the  National 
Board's  offices  in  New  York  and  went  to  see  Mr.  Booth  and  Mr.  Flem- 
ing I  got  a  cold  shoulder.  1  asked  the  reason.  They  said,  what  did 
you  take  a  fling  at  the  National  Board  for  at  St.  Paul?  I  said,  I  did 
not  take  a  fling  at  them,  1  stated  fact-.  From  that  day  on  they  com- 
menced publishing  different  things  that  lead  to  the  protection  of  life. 
I  want  to  explain  that's  the  reason  I  asked  the  question. 

Mr.  Gambes  :  The  code  Mr.  Tousley  had  reference  to  is  the  code 
prepared  by  the  bureau  of  standards,  one  approved  by  the  National 
Board,  hut  it  was  really  one  prepared  by  the  bureau  of  standards  at 
Washington. 

Chairman  Knight:  Are  there  any  other  points  or  any  other 
questions?  Mr.  Tousley  told  a  class  room  story.  There  are  quite 
a  number  of  such  stories  floating  around,  the  faculty  on  one  side  and 
the  students  on  the  other  side.  A  good  many  of  the  stories  wind  up 
with  the  faculty  getting  the  best  of  it,  but  1  think  when  the  real  stories 
are  told,  the  stories  based  on  fact  are  told,  the  contest  is  too  unequal 
for  the  faculty  to  come  out  ahead:  they  have  the  faculty  outnumbered. 
In  support  of  that  statement  1  will  tell  a  story  that  occurred  here  on 
this  campus  in  the  college  of  law.  One  young  man  was  given  to  sleep- 
ing in  class  during  lectures.  The  professor  had  the  habit  of  stopping 
in  the  middle  of  his  lecture  occasionally  to  ask  someone  a  question 
to  catch  him.  It  was  n  class  that  cooperated  very  well,  in  fact  a  study 
later  developed  the   fact   no  two  consecutive  men   slept,  so  there  was 


134 

always  a  chance  for  the  man  awake  to  nudge  the  man  next  to  him  and 
get  the  answer.  There  was  a  chap  to  the  back  of  the  room  called 
Jones.  The  professor  said,  "Jones,  what  is  your  answer  to  such  and 
such  a  question?"  Jones  woke  up.  Jones  was  apparently  quite  popu- 
lar with  the  class  because  four  or  five  attempted  to  give  him  the  an- 
swer. They  were  a  little  enthusiastic  and  made  the  remarks  audible 
to  the  front  of  the  room.  Jones  caught  the  answer  and  gave  it.  The 
professor  heard  the  prompting  he  got.  He  said,  "Jones,  are  you  real 
sure  that  is  the  correct  answer  to  my  question?"  Jones  said, — he  saw 
right  away  the  professor  was  next  and  he  came  back, — "Well,  that 
seems  to  be  the  consensus  of  opinion  in  this  part  of  the  room." 

The  next  speaker  on  the  program  this  morning  is  Harry  K. 
Rogers,  engineer  of  the  Western  Actuarial  Bureau  of  Chicago.  I 
take  pleasure  in  introducing  Air.  Rogers.      (Applause.) 

LIFE  SAFETY 
By  Harry  K.  Rogers,  Engineer,  Western  Actuarial  Bureau 

In  appearing  before  a  group  of  men  representing  the  fire  service 
as  you  men  do  and  talking  on  the  subject  which  has  been  assigned  to 
me,  namely,  Safety  to  Life,  I  find  myself  very  much  in  the  position 
of  an  old  colored  man,  who  was  working  for  the  Rock  Island  railroad 
in  El  Reno,  Oklahoma.  It  seems  that  the  efficiency  engineers  of  the 
railroad,  in  making  investigations  of  conditions  down  there,  came 
across  one  name  on  the  pay  roll  of  a  man  who  had  been  with  the 
company  for  a  number  of  years  without  having  an  increase  in  salary. 
This,  being  unusual,  they  asked  that  this  man  be  brought  before  them 
and  when  he  appeared  it  was  this  old  colored  man.  The  following 
conversation  ensued  : 

"Alose,  you  have  been  with  the  railroad  for  a  long  time,  haven't 
you?"  "Yas,  sir,  been  here  about  thirty  years."  "And  in  all  that 
time  you  have  never  had  an  increase  in  salary?"  "No,  sir,  I  haint 
never  had  my  pay  raised."  "Well,  that's  very  unusual,  just  what  do 
you  do?"  "Well,  sir,  when  these  passenger  trains  come  in  I  picks 
up  my  hammer  and  I  goes  up  one  side  of  the  train  and  I  hammers  on 
all  the  wheels  and  journals  there  and  I  comes  back  on  the  other  side 
of  the  train  and  I  hammers  on  all  the  wheels  and  journals  on  that  side." 
"Well,  that's  very  interesting,  just  why  do  you  do  this?"  "Damn  if 
1  know."  This  illustration  only  points  that  it  is  with  fear  and  trem- 
bling I  approach  the  subject  of  life  safety,  having  an  audience  of  such 
men  as  you  are.  Seriously  speaking,  however,  I  do  not  think  that 
too  much  emphasis  can  be  placed  on  the  need  of  fire  prevention  from 
a  humanitarian  standpoint. 

A  few  years  ago  it  was  the  custom  on  one  of  the  islands  in  the 
Pacific  ocean,  on  a  certain  day  each  year,  for  the  tribesmen  to  select 
their  most  beautiful  girl  and  with  a  great  deal  of  pomp  and  ceremony 
conduct  her  to  the  top  of  an  active  volcano,  and  there,  with  additional 
religious  ceremony,  cast  her  into  the  molten  lava  in  the  crater  below. 
burning  her  to  death  as  a   sacrifice  to  the  gods.     These  savages  were 


135 

sincere  in  this.  It  was  a  part  of  their  religion,  but  when  we  good  peo- 
ple here  in  the  United  States,  with  our  high  degree  of  civilization, 
obtained  possession  of  this  island,  we  at  once  decreed  that  this  terrible, 
barbarous  custom  must  stop.  One  girl  a  year  was  far  too  great  a 
price  to  pay  to  their  heathen  gods.  Yet  here  at  home,  in  spite  of  this 
professed  civilization,  we  still  continue  to  burn  15,000  people  to  death 
annually — 15,000  a  year.  That  means,  if  the  law  of  averages  holds, 
and  we  haven't  any  reason  to  think  that  it  will  not.  forty  people,  who 
are  alive  and  well  this  minute,  without  any  more  idea  of  dying  than 
you  and  I  have,  thirty-two  of  them  women  and  children,  at  this  time 
tomorrow  will  have  met  a  terrible  death  by  fire  and  it  is  a  terrible 
thing  to  be  burned  to  death.  Undoubtedly  many  of  you  have  wit- 
nessed one  of  these  horrible  scenes.  In  order  to  emphasize  my  point, 
if  you  will  pardon  personalities,  I  am  going  to  tell  you  of  one  or  two 
of  my  experiences,  while  actively  connected  with  the  fire  department. 
It  was  on  the  morning  of  the  fifth  of  February,  1923,  in  a  south- 
ern city  that  we  received  an  alarm  of  fire  for  what  was  known  as  the 
Ghetto  building,  a  four  story  brick  rooming  house,  located  just  three 
blocks  and  one-half  from  central  fire  station.  But,  due  to  the  fact 
that  there  was  a  delay  in  transmitting  the  alarm,  when  we  turned  the 
corner,  three  blocks  from  the  building,  the  fire  had  gained  such  head- 
way that  the  stairway  had  already  been  consumed  and  the  flames  were 
going  through  the  roof.  As  is  customary,  the  hose  companies  re- 
sponding to  the  alarm  stopped  at  the  nearest  hydrants  to  make  their 
connections  and  laid  their  lines  of  hose  down  in  the  street,  preparatory 
to  extinguishing  the  blaze,  but  when  they  got  down  a  little  closer  where 
they  could  see,  all  thought  of  fire  extinguishment  was  banished  from 
their  minds.  For,  in  almost  every  window  of  this  building  were  peo- 
ple frantically  calling  for  help.  The  hose-men  forgot  about  putting 
out  the  fire  and  went  over  to  the  truck  companies  and  assisted  their 
ladder  men  in  placing  ladders  to  windows  and  were  successful  in 
rescuing  sixty-seven  people,  but  I  saw  a  girl  come  to  the  window 
around  the  Second  street  side  of  the  building  on  the  fourth  floor  and 
call  for  help  and  there  wasn't  a  chance  to  get  her.  Every  ladder  that 
we  had  was  in  service  at  other  windows.  Firemen  were  carrying 
women  and  babies  down  in  their  arms.  They  were  sliding  their  life 
lines  with  their  human  cargoes.  People  were  jumping  from  upper 
floors  into  the  life  nets  held  below  in  the  streets.  There  wasn't  a 
chance  to  get  this  girl,  but  a  group  of  firemen,  forgetful  of  self,  as  you 
always  are,  got  just  beneath  the  window  on  the  sidewalk,  locked  arms, 
thereby  forming  a  human  blanket,  trusting  to  break  the  force  of  her 
fall  with  their  own  bodies  and  begged  her  to  jump,  but  for  some  reason 
she  did  not  do  it.  While  they  stood  begging  and  pleading  with  her  I 
saw  her  gown  burst  into  flames  and  her  hair  go  up  in  a  sheet  of  fire 
and  with  a  scream  that  we  heard  even  above  the  roar  of  the  flames, 
she  fell  backwards  and  disappeared  from  view.  Two  days  later,  when 
the  embers  had  cooled  sufficiently  for  us  to  make  a  thorough,  search 
among  the  ruins,  I  found  her  body,  but  I  want  to  tell  you  men  if  I  had 
not  known  what  1  was  looking  for.  I  could  have  easily  passed  it  by. 
Tust  a  charred  torso.     The  left  limb  had  been   burned  off  above  the 


136 

knee,  the  right  limb  just  below  the  knee  and  the  left  arm  above  the 
elbow,  the  right  arm  had  been  burned  off  between  the  wrist  and  the 
elbow  and  the  entire  back  of  the  head  burned  away  beyond  any  possi- 
bility of  identification.  The  only  way  we  knew  that  it  was  this  girl 
was  due  to  the  fact  that  no  other  bodies  were  found  in  that  par- 
ticular part  of  the  ruins  and  in  the  ruins  of  this  building  were  the 
bodies  of  eight  other  victims.  Nine  people  lost  their  lives  in  this  fire — 
a  fire  that  undoubtedly  could  have  been  prevented. 

And  then  another  scene  which  is  to  me  far  more  terrible  than  the 
Ghetto  fire.  A  fire  that  occurred  in  the  middle  of  a  bright  summer  after- 
noon. It  was  about  three  o'clock  when  this  alarm  came  in  for  a  little 
house  on  South  Estelle  street,  located  about  one  mile  and  one-half  from 
central  station.  I  rode  out  on  the  service  truck,  which  is  a  very  fast 
piece  of  apparatus,  and  consequently,  was  one  of  the  first  to  arrive  at 
the  scene  of  this  fire.  A  little  two  room  frame  house  was  burning — 
just  a  two  room  building  right  on  the  ground.  You  would  think  that 
anyone  could  get  out  of  a  house  like  this,  but  before  we  were  within 
a  block  of  this  house  we  could  hear  the  frantic  screams  of  a  woman 
and  when  we  got  down  a  little  closer  we  saw  her  frantically  trying 
to  break  the  grasp  of  other  women  who  were  holding  her  and  she 
was  saying,  "Oh,  my  baby,  my  God,  my  baby."  We  found  that  she 
had  gone  over  to  the  neighbors  to  visit,  leaving  a  three  year  old  child 
asleep  on  the  bed  and  the  faulty  oil  stove  burned  out  in  the  other  room. 
She  knew  the  stove  was  faulty.  It  had  given  her  trouble  before,  but 
she  did  just  what  you  and  I  are  apt  to  do.  She  took  a  chance  and 
went  away  and  left  it.  The  next  she  knew  the  house  was  a  mass  of 
flames.  We  knew  that  the  child  was  dead.  It  couldn't  have  possibly 
survived  this  raging  inferno,  but  as  soon  as  we  had  knocked  the  fire 
down  a  trifle,  another  fireman  and  myself,  throwing  our  bunker  coats 
over  our  heads  to  protect  us  as  best  we  could,  went  in  in  an  attempt 
to  get  the  little  body.  Groping  our  way  blindly  through  the  choking 
smoke  and  flames,  we  located  the  bed  and  reaching  across  we  found 
the  little  form,  but  when  we  attempted  to  nick  it  up,  all  we  got  was 
two  bands  full  of  charred  flesh.  I  haven't  told  these  things  because 
I  like  to  talk  about  them.  I  only  wish  that  I  could  forget  them, 
but  they  are  stamped  indelibly  in  my  mind,  but  they  do  emphasize  the 
point  that  I  wish  to  make — that  it  is  a  terrible  thing  to  be  burned  to 
death.  There  is  so  much  that  we  can  do  that  will  prevent  a  recurrence 
of  just  such  scenes  as  these.  Emphatically  yes.  We  each  of  us  do 
have  very  definite  personal  interests  in  the  question  of  fire  prevention 
from  a  humanitarian  standpoint  alone. 

Now,  as  lire  chiefs  of  your  various  communities  you  are  natural 
leaders  in  tire  prevention  activities  and  you  should  make  it  your  busi- 
ness to  know  that  your  homes,  your  schools  and  your  public  buildings 
are  as  safe  as  it  is  Dossible  to  make  them.  Ninety  per  cent  of  our 
public  schools  are  lire  traps  and  we  still  compel  our  children  to  be 
veritable  prisoners  of  the  state  six  hours  a  day.  nine  months  a  year, 
in  a  building  that  may  be  burned  at  anytime.  Again,  let  me  urge 
that  you  make  it  your  business  to  know  that  these  schools  are  safe. 
You  do  not  want  a  repetition  in  your  community  oi  that  terrible  thing 


137 

that  happened  near  Cleveland,  Ohio,  when  the  Collin wood  school 
burned,  where  173  children  and  two  teachers  were  trapped  bkV  ran 
and  burned  to  death  in  a  building-  that  was  undoubtedly  in  as  good  a 
physical  condition  as  a  good  many  of  your  schools.  This  hre  orig- 
inated from  oil  soaked  wooden  floors  coming  in  contact  with  hot 
steam  pipes.  The  day  before,  a  perfect  fire  drill  had  been  given  and 
the  children  had  cleared  the  building  in  one  minute  and  ten  seconds, 
but.  on  this  day  the  janitor  had  forgotten  to  unlock  one  exit  door. 
When  the  children  came  through  the  smoke  filled  hall  and  found  the 
door  locked,  they  became  panic-stricken  and  rushed  back  to  the  other 
exit.  It  was  already  tilled  beyond  the  limit  of  its  capacity.  The 
door  swung  in  instead  of  out  and  with  the  additional  congestion  it  was 
forced  shut  and.  when  the  tire  department  arrived,  it  was  impossible 
to  open  it  until  they  cut  away  the  door.  The  chief  told  me  that  there 
were  these  little  bodies,  wedged  in  there  to  the  top  of  the  door  and 
he  said.  "Down  in  the  center  of  the  pile  was  a  sight  that  made  me 
forget  for  a  moment  that  I  was  a  tire  chief  and  I  became  just  an 
ordinary  father  as  any  man  would  do,  for  there  I  saw  my  boy  with 
his  little  hands  outstretched,  calling  'Daddy,  Daddy.'  I  took  his 
hands  and  tried  to  pull  him  out,  but  all  I  could  do  was  to  dislocate 
both  arms  at  the  shoulders."  Let  me  repeat  that  you  would  not  want 
a  repetition  of  this  thing  in  your  community. 

Xeither  do  you  want  a  repetition  of  that  terrible  lire  that  occurred 
last  Christmas  eye  at  Babb's  Switch,  Oklahoma,  where  a  little  country 
school-house,  24  x  36  feet,  was  the  scene  of  a  community  gathering. 
The  room  was  beautiful,  but  unwisely  decorated  with  garlands  of  tissue 
paper  and  a  freshly  painted  ceiling  had  necessitated  the  moving  of  the 
ordinary  gas  light  fixtures,  so  the  neighbors  had  brought  in  three  coal- 
oil  lights.  Two  were  fastened  by  brackets  to  the  wall  on  either  side 
of  the  room  and  the  third  was  placed  on  a  stand  table  near  the  Christ- 
mas tree,  which  had  been  set  up  insecurely  in  one  corner  of  the  room. 
I  say  insecurely,  because  on  the  day  before,  when  they  were  trimming 
the  tree,  it  had  fallen  over  and  had  been  reset  in  identically  the  same 
manner.  The  good  folks  everywhere  gathered — about  150  in  all  of 
them — packed  in  the  little  school-house.  The  little  children  gathered 
about  the  tree,  rosy  cheeked  children,  happy  in  anticipation  of  the 
pleasure  that  was  to  come.  Santa  Claus  was  going  to  be  there  and 
distribute  the  gifts  to  each  of  the  children.  Santa  did  come  and  did 
give  out  the  gifts  that  were  piled  around  the  tree,  but  in  reaching  for 
one  that  had  been  fastened  to  the  limb  of  the  tree ;  he  pulled  the  limb 
down,  bringing  the  decorations  in  direct  contact  with  the  flame  of  one 
of  the  candles  with  which  the  tree  was  illuminated.  There  was  a  flash 
of  fire,  but  too  late  they  realized  that  not  one  single  precaution  had 
been  taken.  There  was  not  even  a  bucket  of  water  available.  One  of 
the  children  jumped  up  in  fright  and  for  some  unknown  reason  Santa 
Claus  took  the  little  red  chair  that  the  child  had  been  occupying  and 
threw  it  at  the  blazing  tree.  The  chair  passed  through  the  tree  and 
struck  the  coal-oil  lamp  on  the  stand,  causing  it  to  explode  and  almost 
instantly  the  room  was  a  mass  of  flames.  Those  nearest  the  dour  man- 
aged lo  get  otit.  then  remembering  the  babies  at   the  other  end  of   the 


138 

.room,:  fcfiejj  attempted  to  come  back  and  get  them  and  a  jam  ensued 
<u  ilv  do-)'.  Originally,  there  had  been  two  doors  in  the  school, — one 
at  each  end,— but,  the  wise  school  board  had  seen  fit  to  build  a  coal 
bin  outside  one  door,  leaving  only  an  eighteen  inch  opening  in  the  roof. 
Then  they  tried  to  escape  by  means  of  the  windows,  but  again  the 
wise  school  board,  guarding  against  marauders,  had  fastened  heavy 
screen  over  the  windows.  But,  instead  of  placing  them  in  frames  which 
might  be  removed  in  an  emergency,  they  had  fastened  them  by  means 
of  four  inch  steel  bolts,  passing  entirely  through  the  window  frames, 
so  it  was  impossible  to  get  out  that  way.  However,  they  did  get  one 
corner  of  one  screen  loose  and  a  four  year  old  boy  was  rescued,  the 
only  one  that  got  out  through  the  window.  In  this  fire  which  lasted  but 
thirty  minutes,  thirty-seven  people  were  cremated — entire  families 
wiped  out.  Do  you  think  that  the  heartache  has  eased  any  in  that 
community?  Don't  you  think  it  would  be  a  long  time  before  it  would 
ease  in  your  community,  should  a  thing  like  this  happen  in  one  of 
your  schools?  For  the  love  of  God,  men,  make  your  schools  safe  for 
these  babies.  Not  only  your  schools,  but  your  homes.  Not  one  of 
you  men  would  permit  your  child  to  play  with  dangerous  explosives, 
but  a  great  many  of  you  do  permit  them  to  sleep  over  a  cellar  full  of 
rubbish  every  night,  and  do  not  think  that  you  haven't  any  rubbish, 
for  I  will  make  this  assertion,  that  if  your  home  has  six  rooms  and 
you  have  lived  there  six  months,  I  can  get  a  wagon  load  of  rubbish  out 
of  it, — yes,  out  of  most  every  home  in  the  state  of  Illinois, — and  I  do 
not  mean  that  you  are  bad  housekeepers  either. 

Let  me  repeatedly  urge  that  you  not  only  do  these  things,  but 
that  you  talk  fire  prevention  at  every  opportunity,  asking  civic  clubs 
to  form  fire  prevention  committees  to  cooperate  with  you,  and  the 
knowledge  that  you  may  have  perhaps  saved  the  life  of  some  little 
child,  through  your  determined  efforts,  will  be  your  reward. 

Now,  digressing  for  just  a  moment,  I  want  to  read  to  you  a  bit  of 
fire  prevention  propaganda  that  is  the  direct  antithesis  of  what  has 
come  before.  This  was  printed  by  a  western  coast  newspaper,  is  headed 
"When  the  Fire  Alarm  Sounds"  and  is  as  follows : 

"When  you  hear  the  fire  alarm  jump  into  your  car,  start  on  high 
and  hike  to  find  the  fire.  Open  your  muffler,  blow  your  horn  and  if 
you  cannot  make  enough  noise,  get  a  few  boys  aboard  to  help  you  out. 
The  city  ordinance  is  that  upon  the  approach  of  any  fire  apparatus, 
the  driver  should  stop  as  near  as  possible  to  the  curb  and  remain 
there  until  such  fire  apparatus  has  passed.  This  is  for  the  other  fellow. 
It  does  not  mean  you.  The  second  ordinance  prohibits  driving  over 
fire  hose.  This  is  also  for  the  other  fellow.  When  you  hear  the  fire 
truck  coming,  get  an  even  start  and  race  with  it.  Do  not  forget  to 
open  your  muffler,  blow  your  horn  and  yell.  The  other  law  prohibits 
the  stopping  of  vehicles  within  fifteen  feet  of  the  fire  hydrant,  but 
do  not  let  this  prevent  you  from  parking  directly  in  front  of  the  one 
nearest  the  fire.  There  are  plenty  of  hydrants  and  the  firemen  can 
hunt  until  they  find  one.  If  you  have  not  a  car,  get  to  the  fire  as  best 
you  can  and  then  get  in  the  firemen's  way  to  the  limit  of  your  capacity. 
Also,  have    all    the    women    folks    along   to    add    the    feminine    touch. 


130 

If  von  arc  not  in  too  much  of  a  hurry,  call  up  central  and  ask  her 
where  the  fire  is  and  if  she  does  not  tell  you  in  a  hurry,  cuss  her  out, 
for  any  telephone  girl  that  can  not  answer  you  and  six  hundred  other 
people  who  want  to  know  the  same  thing  at  the  same  time,  should 
be  fired."     (Applause.) 

Chairman  Knight:  I  don't  know  as  I  can  say  for  myself  that 
I  have  enjoyed  Mr.  Rogers'  talk,  but  I  am  glad  that  I  heard  it.  I 
think  there  is  a  lesson  there  that  we  should  take  home.  His  talk  was 
too  gruesome  for  enjoyment.  Are  there  any  questions  you  would  like 
to  ask  Mr.  Rogers?  If  not,  the  meeting  will  stand  adjourned  until 
the  afternoon  session  at  1  :30. 


WEDNESDAY,  JUNE  17,  AFTERNOON  SESSION 
Pearl  Smith,  President.   Illinois  Firemen's  Association,  Chairman 


Mr.  Gamber:  The  time  has  come  for  the  afternoon  session. 
You  will  notice  on  your  program  that  Professor  L.  H.  Provine  is 
chairman  for  this  afternoon,  but  he  has  backed  up  on  me.  You  know 
the  successful  thing  in  a  fire  department,  or  one  of  the  more  successful 
things,  is  a  real  good  chief  who  can  make  the  other  fellows  in  the 
fire  department  follow  orders.  I  now  have  the  extreme  pleasure  of 
presenting  as  chairman  for  the  afternoon  session  Pearl  Smith,  presi- 
dent of  the  Illinois  Firemen's  association.      (Applause.) 

Mr.  Smith  :  Mr.  Chairman  and  brother  firemen,  I  do  not  know 
what  I  ever  did  to  John  Gamber  to  cause  him  to  wish  a  job  like  that 
on  me  this  hot  weather.  All  I  do  now  is  to  try  to  find  a  cool  spot  and 
it  keeps  me  busy  at  that. 

I  could  not  be  here  yesterday  on  account  of  illness  in  my  family, 
but  I  am  proud  to  be  here  today  and  tomorrow  and  am  more  than 
pleased  to  see  the  members  of  the  fire  departments  take  such  an  inter- 
est in  this  school.  I  was  wonderfully  surprised  that  there  were  164, 
I  believe,  registered.  I  registered  as  soon  as  I  came  here  and  the 
girl  said  my  register  number  was  163^2.  I  don't  know  where  the  half 
comes  in. 

When  1  heard  Mr.  Gamber  was  going  to  put  this  school  on  I  knew 
it  was  going  to  be  a  success, — I  am  going  to  call  him  John, — because 
John  never  starts  out  to  do  anything  without  making  a  success  of  it, 
and  the  attendance  we  have  now  is  an  almost  positive  assurance  that 
this  course  will  be  a  regular  annual  event.  I  do  not  think  the  state 
could  spend  money  that  would  benefit  the  people  of  the  state  more 
than  to  send  the  firemen  here  and  give  them  a  school  of  instruction. 
The  firemen's  work  is  one  of  the  most  hazardous  occupations  of  today 
and  they  are  serving  the  public  all  the  time. 

We  have  with  us  this  afternoon  Doctor  W.  F.  Burres,  mayor  of 
Urbana.     (Applause.) 


140 

ADDRESS  OF  WELCOME 
By  Dr.  W.  F.  Burres.  Mayor  of  Urbana 

Mr.  Chairman  and  Gentlemen  :  It  is  quite  a  pleasure  to 
welcome  firemen  except  in  an  official  capacity.  I  do  not  suppose  any- 
one is  more  welcome  than  firemen  at  any  time,  but  I  want  to  assure  you 
you  are  quite  welcome  in  the  twin  cities.  I  happen  to  be  mayor  of  the 
east  half  of  them  and  I  am  proud  of  the  opportunity  to  have  this  school 
meet  here  and  am  proud  to  have  you  visit  the  cities.  We  can  offer  vou 
almost  anything  except  something  to  keep  you  cool,  and  as  much  of 
that  as  possible. 

We  will  be  glad  if  you  will  take  the  opportunity  to  visit  and  inspect 
our  cities  in  the  leisure  hours  and  we  in  an  official  way  would  be  glad 
to  have  those  acting  as  officials  and  those  who  have  had  experience, 
express  themselves  as  to  anything  inadequate.  We  will  take  it  as 
constructive  criticism  and  will  be  glad  to  hear  it.  Not  only  that,  but 
as  mayor  I  will  be  glad  to  try  to  enforce  anything  that  will  be  of  ad- 
vantage to  the  community. 

There  is  nothing  I  can  say  that  would  add  to  your  instruction. 
I  might  say  we  have  a  fire  department,  one  in  each  city  and  at  the 
university,  of  which  I  think  we  are  justly  proud.  We  believe  we  have 
the  best  fire  chief  between  Wright  street  and  the  Atlantic  ocean. 

Our  cities  have  been  anxious, — I  know  I  am  speaking  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  master  because  I  understand  the  state  fire  marshal  is 
present, — but  in  a  former  administration  I  happened  to  be  on  the 
council  and  know  there  has  been  a  great  effort  made  to  comply  with 
the  requirements.  I  personally  paid  out  $11  for  a  fire  ladder.  I  did 
not  like  it  very  well,  but  put  it  in  because  I  was  told  it  had  to  be  put 
in.  After  it  was  there  I  was  glad  to  see  it  and  I  know  it  will  not 
get  out  easily.  I  think  when  the  mayor  has  to  be  called  on  to  put  in  a 
fire  ladder,  that  makes  him  impress  things  on  the  rest  of  the  citizens. 

I  wish  you  a  successful  meeting  and  hope  your  stay  in  the  twin 
cities  will  be  filled  with  pleasure.     (Applause.) 

Chairman  Smith  :  Xext  on  the  program  will  be  motion  pictures 
bv  the  National  Automatic  Sprinkler  association.  The  film  i--  entitled, 
''The  Menace." 

(Pictures  shown.) 

Chairman  Smith:  Gentlemen,  I  am  sure  that  you  appreciated 
that  picture  because  of  the  attention  you  gave  it.  I  sat  there  looking 
at  that  picture  and  did  not  know  there  was  anyone  in  the  house  but 
myself.  I  am  pleased  by  the  interest  you  took  in  that  and  the  good 
order  you  gave. 

The  next  on  the  program  is  Fire  Departments  and  the  Training 
of  Firemen,  by  L.  L,  Wolf  of  Cincinnati.  (  Applause.)  T  do  not 
think  Mr.  Wolf  needs  any  introduction,  so  we  will  just  present  him 
to  you. 


141 

TRAINING   THE   FIREMAN 

By  L.  L.  Wolf,  Cincinnati,  Ohio 

Gentlemen,  I  am  this  afternoon  like  Pat  Murphy.  It  was  a  hot 
summer's  night.  Mrs.  O'Brien  on  the  street,  who  took  in  washing, 
had  to  get  up  early  in  the  morning.  Her  alarm  clock  stopped  and  she 
had  no  way  of  getting  the  time.  She  knew  Pat  Murphy  came  home 
every  night  at  eleven  o'clock  so  she  waited  for  him.  When  Pat  came 
along  she  said,  "Pat.  have  you  got  the  time?"  He  looked  up  and 
said,  "Yes  and  the  inclination,  too." 

That's  the  way  it  was  today.  One  of  the  men  to  be  on  the  program 
from  Chicago  failed  to  appear  and  the  professor  asked  if  I  would 
fill  in.  I  said,  yes.  I  hope  I  will  not  bother  you  with  my  presence 
or  talking  on  the  subject,  but  will  try  to  till  his  part  as  well  as  I  can 
under  the  circumstances.  As  a  rule  I  usually  prepare  a  subject  I 
am  going  to  talk  on,  but  I  have  not  had  any  time. 

My  subject  here  of  the  Training  of  Firemen,  that  being  my  life 
hobby,  I  want  to  say  to  you  it  is  absolutely  more  essential  for  a  fire- 
man to  be  trained  than  it  is  for  the  soldier  who  goes  in  the  trenches. 
The  exposures  you  are  subjected  to  are  much  greater  than  his.  Many 
a  crew  of  men  here  have  responded  to  an  alarm,  gone  in  with  their 
lines,  have  not  had  sufficient  water  and  have  been  compelled  to  retreat. 
There  is  no  more  relentless  an  enemy  than  fire.  I  will  bet  many  a 
man  sitting  in  this  audience  has  gone  into  a  building  with  a  hose 
stream,  an  inefficient  hose  stream,  and  has  had  to  back  away,  but  lie 
will  stay  and  take  the  punishment  until  he  has  to  back  awaw 

Xo  man  in  the  world  can  tell  you  how  to  fight  a  fire.  That  can- 
not be  done,  because  there  are  no  two  fires  alike.  You  have  to  meet 
the  conditions  as  you  find  them  on  the  ground.  There  is  only  one 
thing  we  can  accomplish  in  the  training  of  firemen  and  that  is  coordi- 
nation of  effort  and  through  the  coordination  of  effort  we  produce 
efficiency. 

I  want  to  ask  you, — most  of  you  men  have  been  firemen  for  years 
and  have  been  chiefs  for  years. — and  I  want  to  ask  you,  down  in  your 
heart  do  you  feel  you  can  go  to  a  modern  lire  apparatus  today  and 
name  every  tool  by  its  right  name  which  you  will  use  in  fire  fighting? 
Ask  yourself  that.      See  if  you  can  call  every  tool  by  its  right  name. 

In  order  to  get  efficiency  you  must  have  discipline.  Discipline 
gets  efficiency  and  discipline  is  only  produced  by  training.  Training 
produces  discipline,  discipline  gets  efficiency  and  without  efficiency 
you  have  nothing.  It  is  abs<  lutely  necessary  that  every  man  should 
thoroughly  understand  every  tool  that  he  is  called  to  use.  that  every 
man  knows  that  tool  by  the  same  name. — not  one  man  call  it  a  rod 
hook,  another  a  ceiling  hook  and  s()  on.  Everything  must  have  it- 
own  name. 

A  question  came  up  the  other  day  in  a  department  where  I  was. 
A  fellow  >ays.  "How  many  intake-  does  a  siamese  haw-?"  Have  you 
ever  thought  of  that  question.  You  all  know  what  a  siamese  is.  You 
call  your  two-way  a  siamese,  you  call  your  three-way  a  siamese,  \  on 
call  your  four-way  a  siamese.     Absolutely  not.     Siamese  is  taken  from 


142 


what  you  all  used  to  go  to  the  circus  and  pay  to  see  years  ago,  the  Siam- 
ese twins,  two  heads  and  partial  bodies  leading  into  one  trunk.  When 
we  call  for  a  siamese  we  would  naturally  think  of  the  two-way.  You 
never  saw  three  bodies  leading  into  one  trunk.  The  word  is  taken 
from  the  word,  Siamese  twins.  If  you  want  a  three-way  it  is  a  three- 
way,  if  you  want  a  four- way  it  is  a  four- way.  Do  you  think  it  would 
be  proper  to  say,  give  me  a  four-way  siamese?  Your  siamese  is  your 
two-way.  I  will  venture  to  say  there  is  not  a  man  in  the  audience 
ever  had  that  question  brought  up  to  him  before.  This  was  brought 
up  in  a  very  large  department  in  the  east  the  other  day.  When  you 
want  a  three-way  intake  or  a  three-way  outlet  you  call  for  a  three-way. 
If  you  want  a  four-way  you  call  for  a  four- way. 

How  many  men  here  today  can  actually  tie  all  the  standard  knots 
of  the  fire  department?     There  are  only  live,  but  you  have  never  had 

the  opportunity.  You  have  never 
had  the  training,  and  not  know- 
ing, you  have  not  appreciated 
the  value  of  the  standard  knots 
in  hre  department  work. 

How  many  men  here  today 
know  the  proper  way  of  anchor- 
ing hose  lines  where  you  are 
compelled  to  go  to  heights  to 
fight  fires  in  order  to  do  away 
with  as  much  friction  loss  and 
back  pressure  as  you  can?  I 
was  in  a  small  town  a  short  time 
ago,  not  far  from  here,  and  saw 
them  take  a  line  on  the  roof  of 
a  four  story  building.  That 
stream  could  have  been  anchored  to  the  roof  of  that  building  in  such 
a  way,  without  any  trouble  or  without  any  loss  of  time,  that  the  hose 
would  have  made  a  perfect  gooseneck  without  a  break.  There  is  only 
one  real  fire  stream  to  right  fire  and  that  is  a  fire  stream  with  the  proper 

volume  and  proper  force.  A 
fire  stream  that  does  not  blacken 
the  fire  when  it  hits  it  is  not  ex- 
tinguishing the  fire;  in  most  in- 
stances it  is  causing  that  fire  to 
burn. 

I  am  deviating  a  little  bit 
from  training,  but  am  showing 
you  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
that  a  man  should  know  how  to 
anchor  that  line  to  get  results 
and  get  the  full  efficiency  of  his 
engine  and  stream.  You  might 
have  the  best  pump  in  the  world 
and  the  best   hose  and  the  brav- 


Tying"  Knots — Double  Bowlan. 


Carrying-  Hose  Line  up  Ladder. 


est  men  on   the  roof  and  if  vou 


143 


are  not  getting  the  proper  flow  of  water  through  the  line  it  is  the  fault 
of  the  man  who  directed  that  line  to  the  roof  in  not  having  it  properly 
anchored  to  deliver  an  efficient  stream. 


Cellar  Pipe  in  Position  Ready  for  Use. 


Lashing-    Hose    Line    and    Nozzle    to 
Ladder   to    be   Used   as    Cellar    Pipe. 


The  extinguishing  quality  of  water  is  only  equal  to  the  generative 
quality  of  the  fire.  A  small  stream  on  a  large  fire  is  a  menace.  The 
small  stream  instead  of  extinguishing  the  fire  causes  it  to  burn  ;  there- 
fore when  you  get  up  to  the  heights  and  need  water  you  need  it  bad, 
therefore  in  taking  a  hose  line  to  a  roof  that  line  should  be  anchored 
in  such  a  way  as  to  get  full  efficiency. 

I  have  gone  to  different  states  in  the  United  States  where  I  in- 
stalled fire  schools.  When  I  got  there  the  first  thing  the  men  would 
do  would  be  to  curse  me  out,  say  I  was  there  to  give  them  work  and 
make  it  hard  for  them.  After  the  first  few  days  they  realized  it  does 
not  mean  work  for  them,  but  teaches  them  how  to  make  their  work 
easier  and  shows  the  short  way  to  accomplish  results  with  the  least 
amount  of  spent  energy.  When  I  start  the  men  with  setting  up  exer- 
cises naturally  I  don't  blame  them  for  feeling  sore  the  first  day  or  two. 
A  lot  of  fellows  are  put  through  setting  up  exercises  and  they  are  sore 
all  over,  but  after  they  keep  it  up  they  will  work  it  out  and  they  are 

better  men  for  it.  It  improves 
them  morally,  physically  and 
every  other  way. 

Every  man  must  begin  at 
the  most  essential  point,  that  is, 
preparing  the  man  to  perform 
the  duties  he  is  called  upon  to 
perform.  A  lot  of  you  are  good 
firemen.  I  know  there  is  not  a 
bad  fireman  in  the  whole  bunch, 
but  T  will  venture  to  say  1  will 
bring  that  i  5  foot  aerial  over 
here  and  I  don't  care  what  other 
physical  exercises  you  have  been 
doing,  if  1   send  you  up  that   75 

Student    Practice.      Dead    Man's    Lift.  foot    aerial    and    Send    VOU    into    a 


1U 


145 


Invalid    Lift — Exercise    No.    1 


smoke  llled  room  your  wind  is 
broken  before  you  are  in  the 
room.  \\ 'hen  you  go  in  a  smoke 
filled  room  you  want  all  the  wind 
you  can  possibly  have.  If  a  man 
is  not  physically  fit  to  climb  that 
ladder  he  ought  not  to  go  up 
there  ;  therefore  the  training  and 
setting  up  exercises  are  abso- 
lutely essential  to  prepare  you  to 
do  the  duties  you  are  called  upon 
to  perform. 

After  we  take  up  the  physi- 
cal training  of  the  man  then  we 
start  the  rescue  work,  which  is 
one  of  the  most  important  things 
in  fire  training,  teaching  men 
how  to  perform  feats  of  rescue ; 
how  to  do  it  with  the  least 
amount  of  spent  energy ;  how  to 
bring  a  body  from  the  building 
by  the  use  of  a  ladder  with  no- 
body to  assist  you ;  how  to  carry 
a  body  when  you  can  use  the  fire 
escape  or  stairway ;  how  to  bring 
invalids  down  who  have  been 
operated  upon.  This  is  very  im- 
portant. For  this  use  what  is 
known  as  the  invalid  lift. 

After  we  have  taught  a  man 
rescue  work  we  teach  him  first 
aid.  I  think  it  is  essential  every 
man  in  the  fire  department 
should  understand  first  aid. 
Many  a  time  in  the  small  hours 
of  the  morning  you  are  called 
upon  to  fight  fires.  Most  of  the 
departments  do  not  have  regular 
physicians  answer  alarms.  Some- 
body gets  hurt  and  it  is  a  won- 
derful thing  to  know  what  to  do 
at  the  proper  time. 
Tt  may  mean  keeping  someone  from  being  a  cripple  for  the  balance  of 
his  life  or  saving  his  life. 

After  we  go  through  our  first  aid  work  we  start  into  the  fire  fight- 
ing work.  We  teach  every  man  first  the  standard  knots  that  are  to 
be  used  in  his  work  as  a  fireman.  Now,  in  a  great  many  cities  there 
used  to  be. a  habit  of  separating  the  truckmen  and  pipemen  ;  the  truck- 


Exercise  No.  2. 


Exercise   No.  3. 


14G 


men  never  did  any  ladder  work.  That  is  done  away  with  in  most 
departments.  Every  man  is  a  fireman.  A  truckman  must  be  able 
to  handle  a  pipe  and  a  pipeman  must  be  able  to  handle  a  ladder. 

1  had  one  thing  called  to  my  attention  while  here  which  I  want 
to  compliment  the  people  of  Champaign  on  and  that  is  the  fact  that  every 


Exercise  No.   1.  Exercise   No.  2. 

BROOM   AS   EMERGENCY    SPLINT 

man  belonging  to  the  department  in  Champaign  can  operate  a  pumper, 

drive  that  pumper,  act  as  tillerman  or  drive  the  aerial  or  raise  the  aerial. 

I  think  that's  a  wonderful  thing.     How  many  departments  are  there 

that  can  say  every  man  in  department  can  work  the  pumper,  act  as 

a  tillerman  or  drive  a  pumper  ?     Very  few  of  them. 

I  remember  several  years  ago  in  Cincinnati  we  had  a  fire  where 

eight  men  were  killed  by  the  walls  coming  down  on  them.     This  was 

a  general  alarm  fire  and  they 
needed  more  men.  While  that 
fire  was  going  on  there  were  two 
other  fires  in  Cincinnati.  They 
needed  men  to  handle  the  line. 
I  said  to  Chief  Barney  Houston, 
"I  am  not  heavy  enough  to 
handle  the  lines,  but  I  can  run 
the  engine  and  you  take  the  en- 
gineer and  let  him  help."  I  was 
able  to  relieve  that  man  to  do 
dut>-  I  could  not  perform.  In 
your  department  something  may 
happen  to  your  engineer.  I  have 
known  of  full  companies  going 
to   a    lire   and    very    few   coming 

back,  so  it  is  a  good  idea  for  every  man  to  know  how  to  operate  every 

piece  of  apparatus. 

After  we  have  brought  him  up  to  that  point  we  start  with  ladder 

exercises.      That's  a  very  essential  thing,  not  only  raising  and  climbing 

ladders,  but  he  is  taught  ventilation,  one  of  the  most  important  things 


Ladder  Work.      Heel  Lock  Hold. 


IT 


in  fire  righting.  If  there  is  any  man  here  that  is  a  chief  he  will  agree 
with  me  that  every  time  he  rolls  out  to  an  alarm  and  sees  the  fire  com- 
ing out  of  the  roof  he  goes  there  with  an  easier  feeling  than  if  he  sees 
it  coming  out  of  the  windows  and  not  the  roof.  Every  time  the  fire  is 
coming  through  the  roof  you  have  some  chance.  Any  time  you  have 
it  ventilated  you  have  a  chance.  When  you  haven't  got  it  coming  out 
the  roof  the  chances  are  you  are  going  to  have  a  hard  fight  and  a  hard 
fire  to  extinguish. 

In  our  fire  school  every  man  is  taught  how  to  ventilate,  where 
to  ventilate  and  where  to  open  up  under  certain  conditions.  All  of 
those  are  very   important   things.      He  is  taught  all  the  various   hose 


Carrying-   Section  of   Hose   1st   Exercise. 


Second   Exercise. 


m  1 

. 

1 

Third    Exercise — Both    Hands    Tree. 


How  Method  Works   on  Ladder. 


exercises,  how  to  anchor  hose  on  the  ground,  roof  or  ladder.  That  is 
very  important.  Every  man  is  taught  to  climb  the  ladder;  whether 
a  truckman  or  a  pipeman,  he  is  taught  the  same  thing.  Every  man 
has  to  go  through  the  same  thing  in  the  fire  school,  no  matter  what  his 
particular  assignment  is  in  the  department. 

After  we  get  them  through  with  the  ladder  exercises,  we  start  on 
what  is  known  as  the  company  drill.  We  bring  in  two  companies,  an 
engine  company  and  a  truck  company,  and  every  man  knows  bis  duty 
when  he  arrives  on  the  ground.     The  truck  man  knows  it  is  his  duty 


148 

to  put  the  ladders  up  and  ventilate,  the  pipeman  knows  it  is  his  duty 
to  get  the  lines  up. 

I  want  to  make  a  remark  here.  The  city  goes  to  the  expense  of 
buying  a  fine  pumper.  You  have  a  fine  pumper,  you  also  have  a 
chemical,  an  alarm  comes  in,  you  pull  up  in  front  of  the  building  with 
the  chemical  wagon,  go  in  and  only  have  a  small  line.  You  see  when 
you  get  up  to  the  fire  with  the  small  line  that  the  small  line  is  not 
capable  of  handling  the  fire;  you  have  to  come  back  and  get  the  big 
line.  Fires  are  fought  in  seconds  and  fires  caught  quickly  are  more 
easily  handled.  When  you  pull  into  a  fire  ground  with  a  pumper,  con- 
nect up  that  pumper,  take  no  chance.  The  pumper  is  there  for  that 
purpose,  whether  you  ever  use  it  or  not.  The  hydrant  and  pumper  are 
there  and  when  you  send  that  small  line  in.  back  up  the  small  line 
with  the  bigger  line  so  there  will  be  no  time  lost  and  I  think  von  will 
find  it  pays  in  the  long  run. 

One  of  the  best  friends  I  ever  had,  a  chief  I  consider  one  of  the 
best  fire  fighters  I  have  ever  known, — he  was  the  chief  of  one  of  the 
largest  cities  in  Indiana, — lost  his  position  as  chief  of  the  fire  depart- 
ment through  an  accident.  He  had  a  lot  of  pumpers,  but  in  pulling  up 
he  would  put  on  hydrant  streams  and  if  he  wanted  more  pressure  he 
would  call  up  the  city  water  works  and  they  would  give  him  more 
pressure.  The  next  day  the  hydrants  in  the  homes  would  be  leaking. 
He  was  warned  several  times  about  that.  In  11)19  when  I  was  con- 
ducting a  fire  school  in  his  city  I  was  asked  to  speak  to  him  and  warn 
him.  I  did.  He  said,  "We  can  handle  our  fires  with  plug  streams. " 
In  a  few  weeks  there  wras  a  fire  at  a  lumber  yard.  He  pulled  in  with 
his  pumpers,  but  failed  to  connect  them.  A  high  wind  came  up.  The 
fire  jumped  across  the  street  and  burned  out  several  blocks.  There 
was  not  a  single  pumper  connected  up  at  that  fire.  Through  that  very 
thing  the  chief  lost  his  job. 

If  you  have  got  pumpers  connect  them  up  when  von  get  to  a  fire, 
even  of  you  don't  want  to  use  them.  Let  the  water  run  through  the 
pumpers  and  you  have  it  when  you  want  it.  I  wish  you  would  re- 
member that  pumpers  are  taken  to  fires  to  be  used  and  if  you  don't  have 
to  use  them  so  much  the  better;  if  you  do  be  ready.  When  a  general 
goes  into  battle  he  sends  out  his  skirmish  line,  but  there  arc  always 
men  back  of  them  to  back  them  up  and  that  applies  in  fire  fighting. 

After  we  have  the  men  trained  in  those  various  things  we  go 
into  the  various  tools  used  in  fire  fighting.  One  of  those  tools  is 
known  as  a  life  gun.  A  chief  who  has  never  had  one  of  these  guns 
in  his  department  can  appreciate  what  it  means.  Have  you  ever  taken 
a  crew  of  men  to  a  roof  with  a  line  of  hose,  gone  to  work  there,  and 
found  you  could  use  another  stream  with  the  bunch  of  men  you  have 
there,  but  you  have  no  rope  to  hoist  the  other  line  up?  With  a  life 
gun  a  man  can  shoot  the  life  line  up  to  you  and  all  that  is  necessary 
is  to  haul  up  your  line.  I  can  put  a  line  of  hose  on  any  building  in  this 
city  and  I  will  show  them  water  in  a  minute  and  no  man  will  carry  a 
pound  of  hose  up.  All  1  ask  the  men  to  do  is  to  go  to  the  roof  and 
when  they  get  there  the  rope  is  there.  All  they  have  to  do  is  pull  it 
up.     You  can  shoot  a  life  line  oxer  almost  any  building. 


149 


Over  in  Nashville,  Tennessee,  there  is  a  hotel  sixteen  stories 
high.  A  gentleman  who  will  he  here  tomorrow.  Captain  J.  J.  Conway, 
said,  ''That  gun  will  never  carry  the  dart  over  that  building."  I 
don't  know  whether  you  gentlemen  know  the  size  of  the  dart.  It 
is  a  steel  shaft  on  which  the  rope  is  fastened.  He  said,  "The  gun  will 
never  carry  the  dart  over  that  building."  But  it  did,  and  we  showered 
water  on  top  of  that  building  in  less  than  one  minute.  They  are  very 
useful,  and  are  not  expensive.  I  am  not  telling  you  this  to  sell  you 
anything.  1  have  no  guns  for  sale.  I  have  nothing  for  sale  and  you 
haven't  a  thing  I  want  outside  of  your  best  wishes.  1  am  not  con- 
nected with  any  manufacturing  concern.  Everything  that  you  see 
here  belongs  to  me  individually  and  is  paid  for  with  my  money.  I  am 
under  no  obligations  to  the  manufacturers.  The  only  things  that  do 
not  belong  to  me  that  are  shown  here  are  the  Gibbs  and  Burris  masks, 
and  I  own  one  of  each  of  those.  I  show  everybody's  stuff,  because 
if  anybody  has  anything  good,  I  buy  it.  I  have  them  all  here  to  show 
you.  I  am  not  saying  anything  for  any  particular  one  over  the  other. 
Everything  has  its  merits.  I  am  only  showing  you  what  thirty-one 
years  of  actual  experience  in  this  line  has  led  me  to  believe  has  the  most 
merit  for  your  class  of  work. 

I  want  to  say  to  you  if  I  was  a  fire  chief  I  would  not  buy  another 
piece  of  apparatus  until  I  owned  in  my  department  a  life  gun.  They 
are  not  expensive.  You  would  pay  more  for  a  blown  out  tire  than 
you  would  one  of  these  and  these  will  last  a  lifetime.  There  is  no 
upkeep.  The  only  expense  you  have  is  your  cartridges.  You  don't 
use  them  often  so  that  does  not  run  into  anything. 

I  am  not  going  to  take  too  long  on  any  one  subject  because  I 
haven't  the  time.     We  will  now  take  up  the  subject  of  life  belts.     It 

is  absolutely  essential  that  every 
man  in  the  fire  department 
should  know  how  to  slide  a 
rope.  I  don't  know  whether 
you  gentlemen  ever  had  the  ex- 
perience of  being  cut  off  in  a 
building  with  the  only  way  to 
get  out  by  sliding  the  rope.  A 
man  should  know  how  to  use 
this  belt  and  how  to  handle  it, 
especially  in  life  saving  work. 
1  have  here  a  very  good  belt  for 
the  reason  it  has  a  brake  on  it 
and  you  don't  have  to  take  the 
chance  of  burning  your  hands. 
You  can  hold  a  body  with  one 
hand  and  control  yourself  with  the  other.  Practically  everybody  that 
makes  life  belts  makes  that  particular  kind. 

After  we  get  through  with  life  belts  we  thoroughly  instruct  every 
man  in  the  use  of  the  gas  masks.  I  want  to  say  to  you  that  the  gas 
mask  is  strictly  an  emergency  piece  of  apparatus  and  must  be  treated 
as  such.      Xo  department  should  ever  buy  one  gas  mask.      When  buy- 


Instruction  in  Use  of  Life   Net. 


150 

ing  gas  masks  at  least  three  masks  should  be  purchased.  Mr.  Fleming 
talked  here  yesterday,  but  he  did  not  give  this  apparatus  of  his  enough 
attention.  The  best  and  surest  and  safest  thing  he  has  he  gave  the 
least  attention.  That's  the  Gibbs  self-contained  gas  mask  and  the 
Drager  Number  1  oxygen  mask.  I  am  absolutely  opposed  to  a  canis- 
ter mask  of  any  kind.  They  tell  you  you  can  use  those  canister  masks 
and  they  will  show  you  what  he  showed  you  yesterday,  a  little  tube 
treated  with  certain  kinds  of  acids  and  when  it  comes  in  contact  with 
carbon  monoxide  how  to  detect  it.  If  all  our  firemen  were  chemists 
we  would  not  have  firemen  and  when  ordered  in  a  cellar  they  have  not 
got  time  to  make  comparisons  to  see  if  there  is  carbon  monoxide. 

Here  is  what  we  use  when  we  send  a  man  in  the  cellar  ( showing 
safety  lamp).  When  we  send  a  man  into  the  cellar,  no  matter  whether 
he  has  a  gas  mask  or  not,  he  carries  the  lamp  with  him.  It  will  not 
ignite  and  the  minute  you  come  in  contact  with  explosive  gas  or  car- 
bon monoxide  you  see  your  flame  commence  to  rise  and  then  it  is  time 
to  get  out.  It  is  one  of  the  best  safety  appliances  we  have.  You  don't 
have  to  depend  on  chemical  analysis.  While  we  are  here  in  the 
university  to  learn  and  we  have  all  the  respect  in  the  world  for  the 
university,  we  are  all  firemen,  and  if  we  were  all  doctors  and  lawyers 
we  would  not  have  any  firemen.  We  speak  in  firemen's  terms  and  when 
we  go  in  burning  buildings  and  cellars  we  haven't  time  to  make  chemi- 
cal tests.  All  we  want  to  know  is  whether  we  are  safe  or  not  and 
when  it  is  time  to  get  out ;  therefore  the  best  thing  in  the  world  to 
tell  you  when  to  get  out,  when  the  carbon  monoxide  in  the  air  becomes 
dangerous  or  when  the  oxygen  in  the  air  becomes  less  than  fourteen 
per  cent,  is  a  safety  lamp,  unless  you  have  a  good  self-contained  gas 
mask. 

You  saw  a  demonstration  here  yesterday  in  that  house  with  for- 
maldehyde and  sulphur  and  an  automobile  was  running  a  while ;  with 
a  canister  mask  fellows  went  in  and  walked  around.  It  was  all  right, 
a  very  good  demonstration  for  what  you  went  against,  but  I  will 
venture  to  say  there  are  very  few  firemen  in  this  place  but  at  some  time 
in  their  lives  have  not  gone  against  something  as  strong  as  that  with- 
out any  mask.  That  kind  of  a  condition  created  for  tests  is  nothing; 
a  man  knows  what  he  has  to  go  against.  Hut  when  ordered  into  a 
cellar  where  the  fire  has  been  burning  you  want  something  on  that 
you  know  is  absolutely  safe.  You  want  something  that  absolutely 
cuts  you  off  from  the  outside  air  and  there  is  only  one  kind  of  mask 
that  will  do  that  and  that  is  a  self-contained  oxygen  mask.  Everyone 
of  the  manufacturers  that  manufacture"  these  canister  masks  manufac- 
ture these  oxygen  masks.  The  reason  most  of  them  try  to  sell  the 
canister  mask  is  that  the  cost  is  smaller  and  it  is  easier  to  sell.  When 
a  department  can  buy  a  mask  for  $25  or  $30  and  are  led  to  believe 
that  it  is  going  to  fill  the  bill,  you  are  not  going  to  put  $175  or  $250 
into  a  mask  ;  therefore  it  is  an  easier  selling  proposition  and  the  buyer 
takes  the  line'  of  least  resistance. 

If  you  will  write  to  the  bureau  of  research  or  the  bureau  oi  mines 
at  Washington,  1).  C,  they  will  tell  you — they  have  nothing  to  gain 
and  nothing  to  sell — they   will   tell   you  there   is  only  one  kind  of   gas 


151 

mask  to  buy  and  that's  the  self  contained  mask,  but  it  is  an  emergency 

equipment  and  must  be  treated  as  such  and  if  it  is  not  treated  as  such 
and  kept  up  and  the  men  trained,  it  is  absolutely  dangerous.  Do  you 
think  I  would  go  in  some  fire  departments  and  put  on  one  of  those 
masks  and  go  in  a  cellar,  not  knowing  what  care  has  been  taken  of  it? 
It  would  be  like  committing  suicide.  They  must  be  taken  care  of.  ex- 
amined every  two  days  and  men  thoroughly  trained  in  them  to  be  safe. 

In  the  bureau  of  mines  do  you  think  those  men  wait  until  an  acci- 
dent to  practice?  Three  times  a  week  they  have  to  practice  with  the 
gas  masks,  take  them  apart,  test  them  and  they  have  to  know  they  are 
right  when  the  emergency  comes. 

A  couple  of  years  ago  I  was  out  to  Kansas  City.  A  man  was  out 
there,  a  friend  of  mine,  and  he  said.  "Come  out,  we  want  to  showT 
you  a  gas  mask."  He  showed  me  a  No.  1  Drager,  one  of  the  highest 
priced  and  best  masks,  but  the  whole  thing  was  covered  with  mildew. 
If  a  man  were  to  put  that  mask  on  and  go  into  a  cellar  he  would  be 
dead  in  a  few  minutes,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  mask  was  not  properly 
maintained.  What's  the  use  putting  money  into  a  thing  unless  you 
decide  you   are  going   into   it  right   and   maintain   it   and  keep   it   up? 

There  are  different  kinds  of  apparatus.  This  (indicating)  is  the 
canister  type  and  is  good  in  ordinary  smoke  and  most  gases.  It  will 
handle  most  of  the  gases,  but  it  will  not  handle  them  all.  The  next 
type  here  is  one  of  the  finest  types  of  gas  masks  made.  This  is  known 
as  the  Gibbs  self-contained,  fits  on  the  back  and  the  oxygen  tank  is 
good  for  two  and  one-half  hours.  This  has  the  mouth  piece.  This  is 
good  in  mine  work  and  with  this  you  have  to  use  a  nose  piece  and  the 
fellows  that  wear  them  get  hot,  knock  the  piece  off  and  then  they  are  in 
bad.  That  is  what  is  known  as  the  Gibbs  type,  used  by  the  bureau  of 
mines.  This  is  what  is  known  as  No.  1  Drager  oxygen  helmet.  A  man 
] nits  this  on,  pumps  up  his  pads  and  is  absolutely  cut  off  from  the  out- 
side. You  can  breathe  with  all  the  freedom  in  the  world.  The  oxygen 
tank  supplies  him  for  two  and  one-half  hours.  He  has  a  gauge  to  tell 
him  when  to  get  out,  when  the  oxygen  is  getting  low.  This  is  known  as 
the  No.  1  Drager.  This  is  the  self -rescue  type  of  Drager.  This  is 
a  half  hour  mask  and  a  very  good  mask  for  officers,  where  men  only 
work"  a  half  an  hour.  This  machine  weighs  nineteen  pounds,  is  a 
smaller  machine  and  is  a  very  good  machine  in  a  smaller  class  of 
machine.  Those  smaller  machines  can  also  be  used  with  a  helmet  for 
the  protection  of  the  face.  We  have  the  head  protection  that  can  be 
used  with  any  helmet  or  breathing  apparatus.  Then  we  have  here 
what  is  known  as  the  McCall  mask,  another  half  hour  mask  made 
by  the  same  firm  that  makes  the  Gibbs.  We  train  out  men  in  every 
class  of  machine. 

Gentlemen,  we  are  going  to  have  a  picture  taken  and  then  I  will 
go  on  with  another  part  of  the  program.  When  we  get  through  with 
the  picture  we  will  go  into  artificial  resuscitation. 

T  know  I  have  talked  you  about  half  to  death,  but  if  1  have  told 
you  anything  that  will  help  you  I  am  glad  of  it.  If  1  have  not,  1  don't 
care,  you  are  the  sufferers.  Xow  we  will  go  out  and  have  our  picture 
taken.      ( Applause.) 


1 52 

Mr.  Gamber:  We  will  return  here  after  the  picture  and  Mr. 
Richards  will  speak  then. 

(Picture  taken  outside  of  the  building). 

Chairman  Smith  :  If  you  will  come  to  order  we  will  continue 
the  afternoon  program.  Next  on  the  program  is  Hazards  and  Expo- 
sures by  Benjamin  Richards,  manager  of  the  Underwriters'  Service 
association  of  Chicago.     (Applause.) 

HAZARDS  AND  EXPOSURES 

By  Benjamin  Richards,   Manager,   Underwriters'   Service  Associa- 
tion, Chicago 

I  do  not  know  just  what  kind  of  an  audience  I  am  speaking  to. 
I  imagine  it  is  largely  made  up  of  firemen  and  fire  chiefs,  so  if  my  stuff 
is  a  little  technical  you  will  kindly  excuse  me,  because  I  have  been 
confined,  in  the  fire  fighting  work,  largely  to  the  large  manufacturing- 
properties, — properties  running  from  a  half  a  million  dollars  up  to 
fifteen  or  twenty  million  dollars, — and  most  of  these  factories,  as  you 
know,  are  especially  protected  with  sprinklers  and  such  things.  Don't 
hesitate  to  interrupt  and  ask  questions,  because  this  course  of  hazards 
could  be  made  to  last,  as  in  our  Insurance  Institute  work,  a  week. 
One  cannot  possibly  cover  it  in  the  forty-five  minutes  allotted  to  me, 
so  if  there  is  anything  you  have  on  your  mind,  don't  hesitate  to  inter- 
rupt and  ask  questions. 

exposuri-: 

The  first  subject  is  exposure.  All  exposures  are  hazards.  The 
burning  risk  becomes  a  hazard  to  the  neighboring  risk,  so  we  classify 
exposures  as  hazards.  Exposure  is  probably  neglected  by  property 
owners  more  than  any  one  thing.  How  often  we  see  very  fine  buildings 
put  up  right  against  a  fire  trap  or  no  provision  provided  to  prevent 
a  fire  trap  going  up.  We  are  up  against  that  in  factory  work  a  lot. 
The  poor  selection  of  a  location  for  any  property  often  nullities  any 
other  good  feature  one  may  have.  You  might  spend  a  lot  of  money 
on  a  fire-proof  building,  but  it  can  be  readily  burned  out  by  a  bad 
neighbor.  The  Burlington  building  in  Chicago  was  the  most  excellent 
fire-proof  building,  but  it  was  in  poor  company  and  when  the  poor 
company  got  to  acting  badly  the  lire  went  through  the  building,  al- 
though it  represented  the  best  modern  engineering.  We  paid  a  60 
per  cent  loss  on  that  building  alone. 

At  Evansville,  Indiana,  the  other  day  a  strictly  fire  proof  building 
burned.  This  was  not  an  exposure  tire,  but  it  shows  how  a  fire- 
proof building  can  be  damaged.  Reinforced  columns  were  destroyed 
that  were  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  thick. 

It  doesn't  matter  how  good  a  building  is,  if  in  a  bad  neighborhood: 
it  is  no  better  than  its  neighbor.  A  property  owner  might  spend  a 
great  deal  of  money  for  lire  protection  such  as  sprinklers,  lire  walls 
lire  pumps,  standpipes,  hose  and  all  that,  yet,  it  he  had  a  very  bad 
neighbor,  these  benefits  would  all  be  nullified.     A  good  example  oi  that 


153 

is  the  two  or  three  million  dollar  Naumkeag  Cotton  Mill  fire  at  Salem, 
Massachusetts.  That  mill  had  several  acres  of  land  available  when 
young,  but  the  mill  grew  and  the  town  grew  and  the  factory  help  had 

to  live  somewhere,  so  three  Hat  houses  were  built  up  to  the  fences 
of  the  mill.  The  mill  people  had  not  bought  acreage  enough  to  keep 
those  tenements  away,  so,  when  the  city  of  Salem  burned,  the  mill  went 
with  it,  although  there  was  not  a  better  protected  mill  in  the  United 
States.  Everything  known  was  provided  to  protect  the  mill,  but  the 
fire  was  too  hot  and  when  the  tenements  burned  fire  went  through  the 
mill  and  drank  up  readily  all  the  water  applied  to  stop  it.  So  excellent 
protection  and  excellent  construction  may  be  absolutely  of  no  use 
if  there  is  a  bad  neighbor. 

Architects  and  others  advising  people  about  building  a  house,  store 
or  anything  else  should  bear  that  thing  in  mind.  Nowadays  most  of 
our  fire  prevention  work  is  confined  to  keeping  up  production  ;  keep- 
ing the  store  or  factory  running.  It  costs  much  money  when  a  fire 
stops  production,  so  fire  prevention  must  be  considered  from  a  conti- 
nuity of  business  viewpoint.  Insurance  does  not  pay  for  the  stopping 
of  business,  so  exposures  may  involve  serious  expenses,  adding  a  cost 
to  the  investment  which  should  not  be  there.  Blank  walls  cost  money, 
will  cut  out  light,  and  handicap  the  fire  chief  if  you  have  a  fire  of  your 
own,  yet  they  are  often  required  to  protect  against  a  bad  exposure. 
With  an  isolated  property  this  expense  would  not  be  a  factor. 

Then  we  protect  window  openings  with  approved  fire  windows 
and  we  protect  windows  and  wooden  walls  with  open  sprinklers,  which 
protection  saves  many  buildings.  But  all  these  things  for  protection 
against  exposure  are  more  or  less  ineffective.  Some  are  only  of  use 
in  getting  the  insurance  rate.  When  the  property  burns  it  goes  just 
the  same  and  the  protection  costs  the  owner  money  for  which  he  gets 
little  return.  He  had  better  go  outside  the  town  and  get  plenty  of 
land  to  have  room  enough.  Of  course  a  direct  charge  for  the  exposure 
comes  in  in  the  insurance  cost.  There  must  be  a  rate  for  that  ex- 
posure, otherwise  we  would  be  unfair  to  the  property  which  had  no  ex- 
posure. The  state  laws  will  not  let  us  charge  one  man  the  same  as 
another  when  the  hazard  is  different. 

Owners  and  architects  could  well  pay  more  attention  in  the  cities 
also  to  the  matter  of  restriction.  Unfortunately  in  this  free  country 
we  can  build  a  fire-proof  $50,000  house  and  a  man  may  build  a  lumber 
yard  or  a  saw  mill  ten  feet  away.  We  do  not  have  any  way  of  stopping 
that  evil  unless  there  are  restrictions  in  the  city  code  and  that  is  be- 
coming more  and  more  a  factor  of  importance. 

Probably  the  city  of  Detroit  has  been  one  of  the  notoriously  bad 
examples,  with  beautiful  boulevards  and  no  restrictions,  so  the  boule- 
vards contain  $50, ()()()  dwellings  and  factories  and  stores,  all  mixed  up. 
Building  was  not  regulated  originally,  although  1  think  it  is  now. 

In  selecting  sites  and  putting  up  property  it  is  advisable  to  get  in 
a  restricted  location,  if  one  can.  The  building  codes  of  the  towns  and 
cities  directly  affect  this  matter  of  exposure  and  can  safeguard  property 
owners  a  good  deal  if  properly  enforced,  but  even  a  vigilance  committee 
or  chamber  of  commerce  or  the  Kiwanis  or  other  organizations  in  the 


154 

town,  by  moral  persuasion,  can  do  a  good  deal  with  the  building  con- 
ditions where  the  town  is  smaller. 

Then,  of  course,  the  locations  which  have  notoriously  bad  reputa- 
tions are  another  factor  in  the  exposure.  Some  parts  of  your  town, 
as  you  fire  chiefs  know,  call  you  out  much  oftener  than  other  parts 
of  the  town.  Property  owners  very  often  buy  a  piece  of  land  because  it 
is  cheap  and  put  up  a  valuable  piece  of  property  in  such  a  location 
without  taking  account  of  the  fact  that  their  building  may  be  destroyed 
by  its  neighbors. 

I  have  seen  good  prosperous  industries  absolutely  destroyed  by 
fire.  Although  we  paid  the  fire  insurance,  before  they  could  get  going 
again  some  competitor  had  their  business,  so  continuity  of  production 
is  very  important  for  any  industry. 

Another  thing  we  find  often  is  that  valuable  property  will  be  put 
where  there  are  no  water  mains.  The  owner  might  think  and  it  might 
be  perfectly  true  that  there  is  a  very  good  fire  department  in  town. 
Perhaps  the  water  company  or  the  town  has  not  spent  money  on  the 
water  mains,  and  some  fire  plugs  are  rented  for  $50  a  year  to  the  town, 
but  are  located  only  on  a  three  or  four  inch  main.  The  fire  chief  is 
helpless  for  lack  of  water  and  gets  criticized  for  not  putting  the  fire  out. 

I  am  glad  to  hear  Chief  Wolf  say  the  whole  matter  of  fire  fighting 
is  simple,  that  you  don't  need  to  consider  technicalities  or  fancy  busi- 
ness. There  is  nothing  like  good  cold  water  to  put  out  a  fire,  but 
you  cannot  do  it  with  two,  three  and  four  inch  mains,  as  found  in 
many  towns. 

Then  of  course  the  danger  of  exposure  is  also  modified  a  good 
deal  by  the  quality  of  the  police  and  fire  departments  and  such  things 
should  receive  attention  of  owners  building  property. 

Then  the  last  item  is  that  there  are  certain  districts  in  certain 
towns  which  carry  a  higher  insurance  charge  than  other  parts  of  the 
town.  The  property  owner  should  consider  that  in  putting  up  prop- 
erty because  such  a  rate  will  be  a  perpetual  charge  upon  him.  Take  the 
lumber  district  in  Memphis,  Tennessee,  for  example, — a  couple  of 
miles  of  lumber  yards  and  saw  mills.  Insurance  men  simply  have  to 
consider  that  district  mostly  as  one  fire  from  one  to  two  miles  long. 
Had  these  plants  been  separated  a  bit  they  would  enjoy  quite  a  little 
less  insurance  cost.  All  such  things  add  to  the  items  of  expense  and 
are  factors  when  considering  exposure. 

I  recall  a  good  sprinkled  candy  factory  built  in  a  certain  town. 
The  owner  did  not  buy  a  large  lot  and  five  feet  distant  was  a  four 
story  manufacturing  building  which  helped  to  keep  the  fire  department 
exercised.  I  think  they  were  called  down  there  for  a  fire  on  an  aver- 
age once  a  month.  So  the  owner  of  the  candy  factory  got  practically 
no  benefit  from  his  nice  building  because  of  the  bad  neighbor.  He 
was  unfortunate  in  selecting  the  location. 

Assuming  one  cannot  control  neighboring  property  by  trie  building 
code  but  has  bad  conditions  to  meet,  there  are  a  few  items  which  can 
be  considered,  as  follows  : 

I  suppose  the  best  protection  against  exposure  is  private  tire  fight- 
ing means,  such  as  hose,  hydrants  and  pumps,  because  you  can  go  out 


a  few  hundred  feet  and  tackle  the  fire  before  it  gets  into  your  win- 
dows and  can  have  the  hose  laid  out  ready  for  the  fire  department 
when  they  get  there. 

Paterson,  New  Jersey,  experienced  a  severe  fire  once.  There  was 
a  line  of  silk  mills  in  the  path  of  the  fire  and  having  hose  they  got 
out  and  stopped  the  fire  in  a  perfectly  straight  line.  If  they  had 
waited  until  the  fire  got  to  the  windows  of  the  mills  and  for  the  sprink- 
lers to  work,  the  mills  would  have  been  lost. 

The  next  best  thing  to  stop  exposure  fires,  probably,  is  the  blank- 
brick  wall,  made  of  good  old  fashioned  bricks.  Then  assuming  there 
must  be  windows,  as  I  said,  we  rely  on  wire  glass,  shutters  and  open 
sprinklers.  Shutters,  of  course,  will  save  more  loss  than  the  other 
methods  because  the  fire  chief  can  attack  the  fire  freely,  if  the  shutters 
are  shut  on  the  adjoining  buildings,  and  he  will  not  have  to  wet  down 
that  building,  as  the  shutters  can  effectively  keep  out  the  hose  streams 
used  on  the  adjoining  fire. 

Some  of  the  large  congested  shoe  shops  in  the  east  are  fixed  up 
in  that  way.  In  Massachusetts  many  of  the  shoe  factories  are  five 
or  six  stories  high  and  the  windows,  being  shuttered,  the  fire  depart- 
ment can  operate  on  a  fire  to  their  hearts'  content  without  wetting 
down  the  shuttered  building.  \\ 'ire  glass  in  a  wooden  frame  or  in  an 
unapproved  steel  frame  is  not  much  use.  I  had  a  fire  in  Detroit 
where  wire  glass  panels  were  pushed  out  on  the  sidewalk.  The  unap- 
proved steel  frame  expanded  from  the  heat  and  forced  the  glass  out 
of  it,  although  the  glass  remained  intact  until  it  struck  the  sidewalk. 

When  we  come  to  wooden  walls  of  course  we  are  pretty  well  up 
against  it  to  fight  exposures.  We  put  open  sprinklers  on  these  exposed 
wooden  walls.  I  remember  where  there  burned  a  seven  story  wooden 
sheep  skin  tannery  near  a  storehouse  containing  about  a  million  dollars 
worth  of  finished  calf  skins.  There  was  a  wooden  wall  with  three 
rows  of  outside  open  sprinklers  and  by  keeping  the  fire  pump  running 
continuously  to  supply  the  sprinklers  we  saved  the  warehouse.  That 
fire  was  in  a  wooden  plant,  six  stories  high  and  only  forty  feet  away, 
so  it  was  an  unusually  favorable  result  from  the  use  of  open  sprinklers. 

(  )pensprinklers  arc  usually  connected  to  the  city  water  and  as  the 
water  is  under  the  control  of  the  fire  chief  at  the  time  of  fire,  it  is 
not  likely  to  be  used  for  private  open  sprinklers  very  much. 

The  only  other  protection  against  exposure  is  good  plaster  on 
metal  lath  or  sometimes  metal  cladding,  which,  however,  will  get  hot 
and    ignite    woodwork    beneath    it. 

When  we  come  to  certain  classes  of  exposures,  such  as  oil  tanks, 
we  are  up  against  an  entirely  different  problem.  The  problem  of  oil 
tanks  has  been  before  us  a  couple  of  years  with  all  sorts  of  opinions 
expressed,  but  the  main  point  is  to  keep  them  away  as  much  as  you 
can.  If  you  cannot  do  that  build  some  dikes  or  ditches  or  walls  so  if 
the  oil  gets  loose  it  will  not  drain  to  your  property  and  destroy  your 
building.  Good  old  cold  water  is  good  protection  against  oil  tires  if 
you  can  get  enough  of  il. 

You  have  read  bow  the  burning  oil  in  the  harbor  of  New  York 
was  kepi   away  by  the   streams  of   lire-boats  by  sweeping  the   surface 


156 

of  the  water  with  the  streams  and  keeping  the  fire  away  front  the 
wharves.     That  can  he  done  on  the  ground  as  well. 

\\  hen  we  come  to  conflagrations,  when  a  city  is  on  fire,  of  course 
there  i-  not  much  we  can  do  with  private  protection  of  any  kind.  Su- 
perior construction  will  help  some.  In  the  Salem,  Massachusetts  tire, 
although  the  cotton  mill  was  all  destroyed,  there  was  one  building,  a 
three  or  four  story,  small  reinforced  concrete  warehouse,  with  wire 
glass  windows  and  shutters  on  the  windows  I  inside  shutters  and  wire 
glass  outside),  and  although  the  building  was  full  of  smoke  and  we 
paid  some  loss,  it  was  the  only  building  standing  in  many  acres  of 
ruins.  So  this  shows  that  good  construction  is  some  good  even  in  the 
case  of  conflagration  exposures. 

In  that  same  fire  there  was  a  four  story  shoe  counter  factory  an:! 
the  building  was  sprinklered.  Of  course  the  demands  for  water  in 
that  fire  were  very  heavy.  The  other  towns  turned  in  the  water  from 
the  so-called  Metropolitan  water  system  and  there  was  not  really  a 
shortage  of  water,  hut  the  pressure  fell  so  the  sprinklers  in  the  top 
story  of  the  factory  did  not  get  water.  The  top  story  was  therefore 
burned  off,  but  the  other  floors,  where  the  sprinklers  did  get  water, 
held  and  the  factory  was  operating  again  in  a  few  week-.  So  auto- 
matic sprinklers  can  do  good  if  they  have  water,  even  under  very  try- 
ing conditions. 

In  the  Toronto  conflagration,  the  sprinklered  Kilgore  factory 
stopped  the  fire  in  that  direction.  The  factory  was  badly  damaged, 
but  the  sprinklers  helped  stop  the  fire  and  saved  much  of  the  factory. 

Roofs,  of  course,  become  very  important  when  studying  conflagra- 
tions  and  you  gentlemen  know  the  troubles  we  have  had  with  woolen 
shingles  for  the  last  eighteen  or  twenty  years. 

A  conflagration  fire  does  not  go  from  block  to  block.  We  were 
comfortably  walking  along  the  streets  in  the  Chelsea.  Massa- 
chusetts, conflagration,  hut  over  our  heads  burning  pieces  of  roofs 
were  sailing  along  and  they  would  drop  down  a  half  a  mile  or  so  in 
front  of  us  and  set  the  buildings  afire.  So  hundreds  of  fires  were 
started  all  at  once.  That's  where  the  shingle  roof  prove-  a  had  feature. 
Mr.  Wolf  -aid  that  he  liked  to  see  the  fire  running  out  through  the 
roof  so  he  could  locate  it.  hut  with  ten  acres  of  shingle  roof-  around 
him  he  doubtless  would  divide  his  department  to  tight  the  many  fires 
which  would  -tart  from  sparks  and  flying  brand-.  (  )n  the  other  hand 
if  there  were  -late  or  tile  roof-  I  am  sure  he  could  concentrate  his 
effort-  on  the  one  fire  and  not  worry  much. 

Some  cities  prohibit  inflammable  roof  covering-  and  require  slate. 
Of  course  the  prepared  rooting-  are  good,  especially  those  that  have 
been  tested  and  approved.  I  -aw  a  little  dwelling  house  tire  where 
some  -butter-  or  blinds  which  were  burning  fell  on  a  lower  roof.  The 
roof  was  covered  with  some  unapproved  rooting  paper.  It  was  not 
entirely  new,  but  those  blind-  burned  up  on  that  roof  without  setting 
it  on  tire,  -bowing  that    rooting  it    properly  -elected  is  a  great  help. 


i:»; 


GENERAL    HAZARDS 


Now  1  come  to  the  other  hazard-.  When  we  analyze  all  our  lire-. 
whether  in  a  manufacturing  industry  or  elsewhere,  we  come  to  the 
three  things,  lighting,  heating,  and  general  disorder  or  careles-ne--. 
Those  cover  the  cause  of  90  or  95  per  cent  of  all  our  tire-.  There  is 
nothing  very  technical  or  scientific  about  guarding  these  things  ;  just  a 
matter  of  common  sense  in  making  those  hazards  safe. 

Lighting" — We  are  not  troubled  much  with  oil  lamps,  Inn  they 
are  not  considered  safe  and  if  used  lamps  should  be  kept  well  tilled 
so  they  will  not  be  full  of  gas.  There  are  good  and  bad  burners. 
Good  ones  have  ventilation  through  them  so  they  will  not  heat  up. 
Of  course  one  must  keep  lamps  clean.  That  applies  to  the  watch- 
men's and  other  lanterns  as  well  as  the  household  lamps. 

Gas  jets,  fortunately,  are  going  rapidly.  There  was  a  day  when 
convenience  demanded  swinging  gas  jets  everywhere  and  they  were 
always  swinging  against  something  inflammable  and  starting  a  fire. 
I  have  been  through  cotton  mills  lighted  by  gas  and  you  would  think 
they  would  burn  every  da}'.  Inn  somehow  or  other  they  did  not.  I 
don't  know  why.  But  the  swinging  gas  jet,  of  course,  is  a  poor  propo- 
sition wherever  found.  We  should  also  avoid  rubber  gas  hose  and 
flexible  tubes  in  all  ca-e-. 

I  am  no  electrician,  so  I  cannot  discuss  electric  hazards  in  detail. 
There  is  a  so-called  National  Electrical  Code,  about  a  half  an  inch 
thick.  I  have  had  it  on  my  desk  eighteen  or  twenty  years.  It  is  too 
deep  for  me,  but  we  have  men  that  do  know  it  and  use  it  and  we  all 
know  it  produces  very  good  results.  Any  casual  inspection  of  any 
property  may  show  broken  fixture-  and  over  fused  circuits  and  gen- 
eral carele--nes-  in  maintaining  the  electric  light  and  power  apparatus, 
and  I  am  sure  that  the  chiefs  present  will  agree  with  me  if  those  glar- 
ing faults  are  corrected  the  other  matters  are  more  or  less  minor.  We 
find  nails,  wire-,  coin-  and  everything  else  in  fuse  boxes  and  nowadays 
because  of  the  great  demand  for  household  apparatus  driven  by  elec- 
tricity, we  will  find  double  outlets  in  a  socket  only  built  for  one  lamp. 
Outlets  especially  provided  for  that  purpose  should  be  installed.  Of 
course,  there  are  approved  device-  which  are  safe  and  unapproved 
devices  assumed  to  be  not  safe. 

In  foreign  countries  and  in  some  places  in  our  own  country  gas  '- 
line  lamps  are  sold.     Acetylene  lamps  are  also  used,  but  they  are  un- 
common.     Some    European   people  are  very   familiar   with   the   use 
such  lamps,  much  more  than  we  are.  and  they  may  be  assumed  t 
-ate  in  that  sort  of  family.   I   suppose.     I  have  no  direct  records  avail- 
able on  gasoline  and  acetylene  lamps. 

Heating — Of  course  the  old  story  of  keeping  combustible  ma- 
terial away  from  stoves  and  keeping  stovepipes  away  from  combus- 
tibles is  just  as  pertinent  today  a-  it  was  one  hundred  years  ago. 

Architect-  and  also  people  that  install  heating  apparatus  are  care- 
less. A  house  built  with  a  furnace  may  have  a  horizontal  tine  a  little 
too  long.  That  basement  can  be  plastered  or  the  tine  it-el t"  insulated 
and  it  will  help  a  little.      We  don't   like  hollow  spaces  so  we  try  to  get 


158 

flues  insulated,  which  is  much  better  than  plastering  up  your  ceiling, 
leaving  a  hollow  space  in  which  lire  may  spread,  and  such  spaces  are 
very  troublesome.  Then  of  course  you  can  always  appeal  to  the  econ- 
omy of  a  man  running  a  boiler  plant.  By  insulating  the  flue  he  is  sav- 
ing his  heat  and  coal. 

Gas  stoves  should  not  be  portable.  If  they  are  portable  they  are 
likely  to  set  against  combustibles.  The  whole  idea  is  to  keep  things 
that  will  burn  away  from  stoves.  If  they  must  be  near  the  wall  and 
the  wall  is  combustible,  the  best  thing  to  do  is  to  rip  off  the  sheathing 
and  put  on  metal  lath  or  anything  that  will  prove  more  or  less  lire- 
proof. 

There  was  quite  a  lot  of  talk  when  the  single  pipe  house  heater 
came  into  the  market  and  to  the  casual  observer  that  sort  of  a  furnace 
looked  dangerous.  There  was  a  lot  of  prejudice  to  overcome,  especial- 
ly among  us  insurance  men.  The  manufacturers  have  been  using  quite 
a  little  care  to  see  that  the  one  tube  furnace  is  properly  installed  so  the 
fire  record  so  far  has  not  been  bad  on  those  furnaces.  If  people  sweep 
paper  and  things  down  directly  on  the  dome  of  the  lire  box  there  will 
of  course  be  trouble. 

I  don't  suppose  there  is  any  use  speaking  to  an  audience  of  this 
kind  about  the  importance  of  keeping  flues,  chimneys,  etc.,  tight.  Chim- 
neys not  on  a  good  foundation  settle  and  crack  and,  especially  if  the 
crack  is  near  the  roof,  then  there  is  bound  to  be  a  lire  in  the  attic.  A 
very  casual  inspection  of  those  chimneys  is  important  in  our  own 
homes  and  other  property  which  we  are  looking  after. 

Matches — I  suppose  when  we  talk  of  common  hazards  the 
match  is  the  most  important  thing.  The  favorite  greeting  of  the 
American  citizen  is,  "Have  you  a  match?"  We  are  supposed  to  have 
them  in  our  pocket  whether  we  smoke  or  not.  That  brings  us  down  to 
the  fundamental  cause  of  all  fires,  which  is  carelessness.  We  have  not 
yet  found  a  way  to  protect  against  carelessness.  The  human  element 
is  the  problem  we  are  up  against  more  than  any  one  thing.  We  have 
fire  protection  and  almost  everything  we  can  think  of.  We  have  effi- 
cient and  bard  working  lire  departments,  but  we  have  still  the  care- 
less person  with  us  and  how  to  treat  him  is  a  problem. 

"Moral  Hazard" — That  thought  naturally  leads  us  into  the 
question  of  moral  hazard,  which  1  don't  know  much  about,  but  it  is 
a  very  important  factor.  Mr.  Babson  the  other  day  came  out  with 
a  statement,  saying  a  great  many  more  retail  stores  were  in  the  coun- 
try than  the  country  could  possibly  need.  In  small  towns  the  auto- 
mobile carries  the  people  to  the  larger  towns  and  the  small  town  store 
is  up  against  it.  There  is  not  other  thing  worrying  the  insurance  com- 
panies so  much  as  that  just  now.  The  moral  hazard  does  not  mean 
always  that  a  man  is  going  to  set  his  place  afire,  hut  more  often  that 
he  don't  care  much  whether  it  does  burn  or  not.  It  is  a  hard  thing 
to  guard  against.  If  you  find  carelessness  you  can  make  certain  as- 
sumptions. That's  where  the  lire  departments  in  their  leisure  time 
can  help  a  lot.  Walk  up  and  down  the  street,  for  the  presence  o\  your 
brass  buttons  has  a  good  eflect  on  some  of  those  people. 

1   know  one  chief   in  a  certain   city   who   doe-   not    fail   to   do   this 


l.V.i 

every  week.  I  think  there  is  no  town  in  the  United  States  which  has 
so  few  incendiary  fires.  He  thinks  if  he  has  his  men  go  into  these 
stores  and  show  their  uniform  and  brass  buttons  he  will  not  have  to 
get  out  at  night  to  a  fire,  and  the  figures  show  that  he  is  right.  He 
said.  "You  know  I  am  kind  of  lazy  and  if  I  can  stop  these  fellows  I 
would  rather  do  that  than  get  out  of  bed  and  light  a  fire.''  He  even 
goes  so  far  sometimes,  when  a  stranger  moves  into  town  and  opens 
up  a  store,  as  to  investigate  to  see  where  he  came  from.  He  gets  into 
communication  with  the  lire  chief  of  that  man's  former  town  and  if 
he  finds  that  the  gentleman  has  had  a  few  tires  while  over  there  and 
that  he  has  moved  into  a  new  location  probably  to  keep  up  the  custom, 
he  notifies  the  insurance  agents  confidentially  and  the  fire  is  prevented 
before  it  happens. 

Care  of  Ashes — There  is  nothing  wonderful  about  that  to  talk 
about.  We  still  have  with  us  the  man  who  shovels  his  hot  ashes  into 
a  wooden  barrel.  Metal  barrels  do  not  cost  much,  but  they  are  scarce 
among  homes  and  hardware  dealers  should  stock  up  on  them  and  ad- 
vertise them  and  thus  get  rid  of  all  the  wooden  barrels. 

I  don't  know  whether  we  will  have  any  ash  barrels  very  long  by 
the  way  oil  burners  are  coming  into  use.  I  am  on  the  Laboratory 
council  and  have  reviewed  forty  or  fifty  oil  burners  for  use  in  dwell- 
ing houses.  Of  course,  they  have  not  been  used  enough  yet  to  draw 
real  conclusions  as  to  their  safety.  We  try  to  avoid  all  we  can  the 
gravity  feed  for  oil,  because  if  there  is  a  fire  in  the  basement  and  the 
pipe  is  broken  the  oil  keeps  on  flowing  and  continues  to  feed  the  fire. 
That  is  why  approved  devices  require  a  pump  feed,  so  if  anything 
happens  the  pump  can  be  stopped.  Of  course  the  oil  should  be  kept 
outside,  if  possible. 

I  only  have  a  few  minutes  so  will  have  to  skip  many  hazards. 

Paints,  Oils  and  Spontaneous  Ignition — Of  course  the  problem 
of  spontaneous  ignition  arises  in  man}'  factories.  I  reviewed  a  garage 
tire  where  a  pair  of  garage  man's  overalls  started  a  fire,  which  of  course 
is  rather  surprising  to  some  of  us.  They  were  only  saturated  with 
mineral  oil.  but  I  suppose  there  was  other  dirt  maybe  that  helped. 
When  we  try  to  duplicate  such  a  mineral  oil  fire  in  our  chemical  labor- 
atories we  cannot  do  it,  but  evidently  oily  rags  and  overalls  should  be 
taken  care  of  if  fires  are  to  be  avoided. 

Gasoline,  Benzine  and  Alcohol — We  are  all  familiar  with  these 
hazards.  Most  of  them,  except  alcohol,  have  a  heavy  vapor  settling 
on  the  floor  like  so  much  water,  'fake  the  rubber  mills,  they  are  full 
of  such  vapors,  but  we  have  very  few  fires  because  we  keep  all  those 
processes  out  of  basements  and  pits.  There  was  a  building  on  which 
a  tire  and  rubber  company  wanted  insurance,  but  the  floor  of  the  room 
was  eighteen  inches  below  the  grade  and  naphtha  is  bound  to  settle  in 
such  a  low  place.  The  insurer  did  not  like  our  suggestion  to  correct 
the  defect  very  well  and  said  he  would  be  glad  to  insure  the  building 
himself.  We  agreed  and  excluded  that  building  when  insuring  the 
main  plant.  Before  the  year  was  out  the  building  burned  twice  and 
a  man  was  killed  and  others  crippled  for  life.  Then  the  owner  wanted 
to  know  what  to  do.      1   told  him  to  fill  it  up  so  the  floor  would  not  be 


160 

below  grade.  That  was  nine  years  ago.  He  did  it  and  we  insured  it 
and  have  not  had  a  loss  since.  Naphtha  fumes  collect  in  basements  and 
low  places.  Some  people  go  to  a  lot  of  expense  to  buy  fans  and  venti- 
lating systems,  which  generally  add  to  the  hazard.  The  whistle  blows. 
the  mill  shuts  down,  the  factory  stops  and  all  vapors  in  the  vent  tubes 
settle  back.  They  start  up  at  one  o'clock  and  you  get  a  lire.  This 
fellow  I  told  about  paid  $7,000  for  a  ventilating  system.  I  suggested 
filling  the  floor  up  at  a  cost  of  $180.  If  we  can  remember  those  fumes 
are  like  so  much  water  we  can  drain  them  to  a  safe  place.  There  is 
no  use  working  against  the  laws  of  nature.  People  try  to  lift  them  out 
the  roof.  They  will  not  go  out  the  roof,  they  will  readily  go  out  on 
the  floor  level  like  water. 

Chemicals — When  it  comes  to  chemicals  we  are  getting  into 
a  technical  subject.  Chlorates  are  found  in  dye  works.  If  there  are 
any  chemical  works  in  your  territory  the  fire  chief  and  his  lieutenants 
ought  to  get  acquainted  with  the  places  where  those  drugs  and  chem- 
icals are  kept  so  they  will  not  put  water  on  them.  The  same  is  true 
of  carbide  in  the  acteylene  generator  plants. 

Fuel  Oil — This  causes  us  a  lot  of  trouble.  We  unfortunately 
have  a  lot  of  ideas  which  need  readjusting  to  new  facts.  We  think 
wood  workers  are  bad  and  metal  workers  are  good,  which  is  true,  but 
we  have  not  adjusted  our  experiences  properly  to  show  the  relative 
profits  on  those  classes.  Last  year  the  record  for  the  National  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters  shoved  78  per  cent  loss  on  metal  workers,  that 
is  machine  shops,  foundries  and  such  shops.  The  trouble  in  this  class 
of  risk  is  almost  entirely  due  to  fuel  oil.  Fuel  oil  is  any  old  thing 
the  oil  companies  sell,  after  they  have  taken  everything  else  needed 
out  of  the  oil.  It  is  never  twice  alike.  It  may  have  some  gasoline  in 
it  and  when  on  fire  in  a  tank  it  is  the  worst  thing  you  can  get  up  against. 
When  heated  it  boils  over  and  flows  all  over  the  place.  In  our  metal 
workers  there  is  much  of  fuel  oil  used  now.  We  like  to  have  that  oil 
outside  and  a  valve  outside  so  it  can  be  shut  off  in  case  of  fire.  Fire 
chiefs  can  get  acquainted  with  oil  systems  and  where  the  shut  off  valve 
is  located,  because  there  is  no  use  fighting  a  fire  and  feeding  it  with 
oil  at  the  same  time. 

Dust — Dust  hazards  are  bad,  especially  in  grain  elevators. 
You  know  the  farmer  has  explosions  in  threshing  machines.  Almost 
any  dust  will  burn  and  explode.  A  lot  of  these  explosions,  like  that 
in  the  big  grain  elevator  in  Chicago,  occur  from  a  little  lire  starting 
a  little  puff  of  dust.  This  ignites  and  causes  a  series  of  other  puffs 
and  they  progress  until  by  and  by  the  million  dollar  elevator  is  ruined. 
They  build  up  from  a  little  explosion  to  a  lot  of  explosions,  each  ex- 
plosion driving  more  dust  in  the  air  as  it  goes  along. 

There  is  a  book  published  by  the  department  of  agriculture  which 
is  very  enlightening  on  the  dust  explosion  feature.  Dust  should  be 
swept  up  and  be  kept  cleaned  up.  In  a  factory  it  does  not  make  much 
difference  what  the  dust  is.  although  some  dusts  are  more  explosive 
than  others.  Steel  tilings  will  burn  just  as  will  anything  else  if  finely 
divided.  Dust  of  any  nature  in  any  factor)-  is  dangerous.  There  are 
not  man)'  explosions  in  a  cement  mill  although  there  are  some. 


161 

I  don't  know  how  1  can  close  this  talk  (  as  1  should  have  closed  five 
minutes  ago),  better  than  to  say  there  is  only  one  cause  of  lire  and  that 
is,  disorder,  something  out  of  [dace.  Lightning  is  all  right  if  running 
down  the  chimney  on  an  approved  lightning  rod.  I  had  a  chimney  300 
feet  high  insured  for  eighteen  years  and  lost  the  top  of  it  the  other  day. 
Why?  A  contractor  working  around  it  got  careless  and  broke  the 
lightning  rod.  When  the  loss  came  in  I  asked  our  engineer  how  it 
happened;  if  there  was  not  a  lightning  rod  on  the  chimney?  He  went 
to  the  mill  and  found  that  the  rod  had  been  disconnected.  So  the 
lightning  was  out  of  place,  being  on  a  rod  that  was  out  of  place.  Xo 
matter  what  fire  you  have  there  is  always  something  out  of  place.  A 
fire  is  all  right  in  a  stove,  it  is  all  right  in  a  fireplace,  but  when  it  gets 
out  into  the  house  it  is  out  of  place.     I  thank  you.      (Applause.) 

Chairman  Smith:  Any  of  you  school  boys  wish  to  ask  Mr. 
Richards  any  questions?  If  not,  on  behalf  of  the  school,  I  want  to 
thank  you.  Air.  Richards,  for  the  splendid  lecture  you  gave  us.  There 
are  a  few  announcements,  one  is  that  tonight  at  eight  o'clock  there  will 
be  moving  pictures  at  the  Illinois  Union  building;  plenty  of  smoke, 
but  no  hre. 

You  know  if  you  turn  a  wolf  outside  he  can  cut  up  more  and  take 
care  of  himself  better  than  he  can  when  you  put  him  in  the  cage.  We 
are  going  to  adjourn  now  and  Mr.  Wolf  will  continue  his  demonstra- 
tions out  in  the  balm}-  breeze  and  the  shade  nature  gave  us. 

(  Whereupon  a  demonstration  of  Resuscitation  was  given  by  L.  L. 
Wolf  of  Cincinnati,  on  the  outside.) 

ARTIFICIAL  RESUSCITATION 
By  L.  L.  Wolf,  Cincinnati 

This  is  something  that  every  man,  woman  and  child  should  know 
because  you  may  never  know  when  you  will  be  called  upon  to  apply 
one  of  the  various  methods  of  artificial  resuscitation  to  some  of  your 
very  own.  Artificial  resuscitation  is  divided  into  two  classes,  manual 
and  mechanical. 

While  early  medical  history  exhibits  a  remarkable  paucity  of  liter- 
ature on  the  resuscitation  of  the  apparently  dead  from  their  state  of 
suspended  animation,  there  is  no  question  but  that  all  seafaring  people 
from  the  earliest  days  practiced  some  form  of  artificial  respiration, 
'fhe  ancient  Greek  and  Egyptian  physicians  are  said  to  have  attempted 
to  prevent  death  by  blowing  the  breath  of  life  into  the  victim's  nos- 
trils at  intervals  regulated  by  their  own  breathing.  Even  the  primitive 
South  Sea  Islanders  practice  a  form  of  manual  artificial  respiration 
crudely  similar  to  our  own  most  advanced  manual  methods. 

It  is  not  to  be  assumed,  however,  that  this  field  of  medical  re- 
search was  entirely  neglected.  Many  investigators  spent  time  and 
thought  on  it,  but  their  work   was  spasmodic,  isolated  and  unfruitful. 

But  in  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  with  the  coming 
of  an  intense  industrial  and  commercial  era  and  rapid  advancement 
in  the  chemical,  mining  and  medical  fields,  the  demand  arose  for  some- 
thing better  than  the  crude  methods  then  in  use. 


162 


r 


1 


163 

The  Sylvester  and  Schaefer  methods  of  manual  artificial  respira- 
tion were  among  the  first  to  appear  and  were  followed  by  many  others. 
For  a  time  these  methods  seemed  to  meet  all  requirements.  In  the 
following  years  medical  science  also  made  remarkable  strides.  Prin- 
ciples of  physiology  were  established  which  indicated  serious  defects 
in  all  resuscitation  methods  then  in  use. 

Various  commissions  appointed  to  investigate  them  reported  that 
by  the  application  of  mechanical  devices  a  larger  exchange  volume 
could  be  obtained  and  greater  regularity  developed,  and  that  such 
methods  were  therefore  preferable  to  manual  operation.  Mr.  Bernard 
Draeger  became  interested  in  this  field  of  life  conservation  through 
his  other  medical  and  rescue  apparatus,  and  his  extensive  and  inval- 
uable experience  in  supplying  oxygen  by  means  of  mechanical  devices. 

After  years  of  experiment  and  collaboration  with  Professor  Roth 
and  other  physiologists  of  international  repute  they  perfected  the  pul- 
motor.  Several  of  these  were  manufactured  and  submitted  to  leading 
physiologists  and  demonstrated  before  medical  conventions. 

From  the  beginning  the  pulmotor  received  the  hearty  acclaim  its 
merit  warranted,  but  because  of  the  failure  of  all  previous  attempts 
in  this  direction  and  the  natural  conservatism  of  a  true  scientist,  Mr. 
Draeger  preferred  to  allow  the  machine  to  prove  its  value  in  actual 
service,  and  sell  itself  without  promotion  or  sales  effort. 

The  pulmotor  was  on  the  market,  therefore,  for  nearly  three 
years  before  it  was  generally  known.  Then  came  remarkable  accounts 
of  its  service  in  saving  life.  Hardly  a  day  would  pass  but  somewhere 
a  newspaper  would  record  its  success.  Mining  companies,  hospitals, 
public  service  corporations,  metallurgical  and  chemical  plants,  found- 
ries, fire  departments,  and  an  endless  list  of  others  installed  it. 

Today  over  five  thousand  are  in  use  and  there  is  scarcely  a  com- 
munity of  any  size  that  hasn't  the  protection  of  the  pulmotor.  Count- 
less lives  have  been  saved.  Its  field  of  usefulness  is  being  broadened 
every  day.  It  is  now  approved  both  here  and  abroad  as  the  most 
dependable  means  of  preserving  life  in  all  cases  of  respiratorv  collapse 
due  to  contusions,  drowning,  electric  shock,  asphyxiation  by  pressure, 
noxious  fumes  and  gases,  drug  and  alcoholic  poisoning — and  in  obstet- 
rical emergencies  to  induce  respiration  in  apparently  stillborn  infants. 

Indeed,  so  complete  has  been  its  success,  that  "pulmotor",  although 
a  trademark  name,  has  become  almost  a  generic  title  for  all  forms 
of  resuscitation  apparatus.  Newspapers,  unfamiliar  with  the  fact-, 
have  published  articles  calling  attention  to  the  explosion  of  pulmotors, 
when  the  device  causing  the  accident  was  in  reality  a  competitive  ap- 
paratus. In  over  a  decade  of  successful,  useful  service  to  humanity 
no  pulmotor  has  ever  injured  operator  or  patient.  For  your  own  pro- 
tection remember  that  there  is  (inly  one  pulmotor  and  that  the  genuine 
always  bears  the  name  Draeger. 

The  vital  defects  of  all  manual  methods  of  artificial  respiration 
are:  That  they  do  not  supply  a  sufficient  pulmonary  ventilation  and 
must  be  continued  over  long  periods.  As  all  of  them  require  great  skill 
and  strength,  operators  are  quickly  fatigued  and  must  be  relieved  by 
someone  equally  competent.        Again   they  cannot   be   used    where   the 


victims  received  injury  in  the  accident,  such  as  broken  bones,  abrasions, 
etc. 

The  pulmotor  overcomes  all  these  defects.  It  is  absolutely  auto- 
matic. The  operator  is  not  called  on  for  physical  exertion  to  attend 
the  patient.  It  creates  respiration  identical  in  volume  and  cadence  with 
the  natural  normal  breathing-  of  the  patient,  regardless  of  his  age  or 
physical  development.  Jt  furnishes  him  with  air  enriched  by  oxygen, 
speeding  his  recovery.  It  can  be  used  on  the  patient  with  perfect 
safety  and  comfort,  no  matter  how  badly  he  is  injured,  and  its  operation 
is   an   unfailing  guide  to   his   condition. 

The  pulmotor  operates  on  established  physiological  principles.  In 
its  decade  of  service  to  humanity,  not  one  case  has  ever  been  found 
where  its  use  was  not  beneficial.  It  has  not  always  succeeded  in  pre- 
serving life,  but  in  those  cases  where  it  failed,  the  victim  was  far  be- 
yond any  human  aid,  and  its  use  positively  indicated  that  life  had  de- 
parted. 

The  above  paragraphs  treat  with  the  mechanical  methods.  We  will 
now  go  into  what  is  known  as  the  Schaefer  or  prone  pressure  method. 
Follow  these  instructions  even  if  the  patient  appears  dead,  whether 
from  drowning,  asphyxiation,  or  strangulation. 

As  soon  as  the  patient  is  clear  of  the  gas  or  water  quickly  feel  with 
your  finger  in  his  mouth  and  throat  and  remove  any  foreign  body  (to- 
bacco, false  teeth,  etc.).  If  the  mouth  is  tight  shut,  pay  no  more  at- 
tention to  it  until  later.  Do  not  stop  to  loosen  the  patient's  clothing. 
"hut  immediately  begin  actual  resuscitation.  Every  moment  of  delay  is 
serious.     Proceed  as  follows  : 

(  1  )  Lay  the  patient  on  his  belly,  one  arm  extended  directly  over- 
head, the  other  bent  at  elbow,  and  with  face  to  one  side,  resting  on  the 
hand  or  forearm,  so  that  the  nose  and  mouth  are   free  for  breathing. 

(  2  )  Kneel,  straddling  the  patient's  hips  with  knees  just  below 
the  patient's  hip  bones  or  opening  of  the  pants  pockets.  Place  the 
palms  of  your  hands  on  the  small  of  the  back  with  the  fingers,  over  the 
ribs,  the  little  finger  just  touching  the  lowest  rib,  the  thumb  alongside 
of  the  fingers  ;  the  tips  of  the  fingers  just  out  of  sight. 

(3)  While  counting  one,  two,  and  with  arms  held  straight,  swing 
forward  slowly  so  that  the  weight  of  your  body  is  gradually,  but  not 
violently,  brought  to  bear  upon  the  patient.  This  act  should  take  from 
two  to  three  seconds. 

(  I  )  While  counting  three,  swing  backward  so  as  to  remove  the 
pressure,  thus  return  to  the  position. 

(5)  While  counting  four,  five — rest. 

(6)  Repeat  these  operations  deliberately,  swinging  forward  and 
backward  twelve  to  fifteen  times  a  minute — a  complete  respiration  in 
four  or  five  seconds.     Keep  time  with  your  own  breathing. 

(  -  i  As  soon  as  this  artificial  respiration  has  been  started,  and 
while  it  is  being  continued,  an  assistant  should  loosen  any  tight  clothing 
about  the  patient's  neck,  chest,  or  waist.     Keep  the  patient  warm. 

(8)  Continue  artificial  respiration  without  interruption  until 
natural  breathing  i>  restored,  if  necessary  four  hours  or  longer,  or  until 


165 

a  physician  declares  rigor  mortis  (stiffening  of  the  body)  has  set  in. 
If  natural  breathing  stops  after  being  restored,  use  resuscitation  again. 
The  Care  of  the  Patient — (1)  Keep  the  patient  warm.  Every 
precaution  must  be  taken  to  prevent  a  gas  patient  from  becoming 
chilled.  To  be  chilled  means  a  strain  on  his  already  weakened  vitality. 
It  may  kill  him  or  help  to  cause  pneumonia.  Wrap  him  in  blankets  and 
use  hot  water  bottles  or  hot  bricks.  Yon  can  till  a  hot  water  bottle 
from  the  radiator  of  an  automobile.  Be  careful  to  protect  the  patient 
from  burns  by  hot  water  bottles  or  bricks  against  the  bare  skin.  An 
unconscious  man  has  no  way  of  telling  you  when  he  is  being  burned. 
A  burn  may  be  worse  than  the  after  effects  of  the  gas. 

(2)  Breathing.  Remember  always:  The  most  important  thing 
i>  to  see  that  the  -patient  continues  to  breathe.  If  he  stops  breathing, 
don't  wait  for  blanket  or  hot  water  bottles.     Start  artificial  respiration. 

(3)  Treatment.  Never  give  an  unconscious  man  anything  to 
drink.  It  may  choke  him.  Never  give  whiskey.  Whiskey  acts  on  a 
man  in  much  the  same  way  a-  gas.  It  makes  a  gassed  man  worse.  Hot 
black  coffee  is  excellent  if  the  man  is  conscious  enough  to  drink  it. 
When  the  patient  has  become  conscious  keep  him  wrapped  up  warmly. 
He  must  be  kept  quiet.  He  may  want  to  get  up  or  struggle.  Keep  him 
down.  After  he  is  conscious,  turn  him  on  his  back  if  that  is  more  com- 
fortable, but  keep  him  lying  down  for  at  least  six  hours.  Even  a  little 
exertion  is  bad  and  a  gassed  man  may  collapse  if  he  tries  to  walk. 

(d)  After  effects.  After  the  patient  is  conscious,  it  is  the  work 
of  the  doctor  to  see  that  he  does  not  develop  pneumonia  or  other  after 
effects  of  gas  poisoning.  If  you  have  done  your  best  and  followed 
these  instructions  carefully,  you  have  done  much  to  prevent  these  after 
effects. 

The  Use  of  Inhalation  to  Drive  Carbon  Monoxide  out  of  the 
Blood.  In  gas  poisoning  oxygen  used  properly  helps  to  drive  the  car- 
bon monoxide  from  the  blood.  To  do  any  considerable  good  the  oxygen 
must  be  given  during  the  first  two  hours  after  the  man  is  out  of  the 
gas.  the  sooner  the  fetter.  Sometime-  the  patients  do  not  breathe  well 
after  they  are  brought  out  of  the  gas.  In  fact  some  -top  breathing  en- 
tirely. Even  those  who  breathe  normally  often  cannot  get  the  gas  out 
of  their  blood  fast  enough  to  prevent  their  being  very  sick  or  even 
dying  afterwards.  Pure  oxygen  does  not  stimulate  the  breathing.  For 
this  reason  it  is  recommended  that  about  rive  per  cent  carbon  dioxide — 
which  is  the  gas  that  is  in  soda  water — be  mixed  with  the  oxygen. 
This  makes  the-  patient  breathe  much  more  deeply  and  thus  allows  the 
oxygen  to  drive  the  carbon  monoxide  out  of  the  blood  very  rapidly. 
The  carbon  dioxide  also  fee])-  the  breathing  from  stopping.  It  starts 
breathing  more  quickly  in  those  on  whom  it  may  be  necessary  to  do 
artificial  respiration.  It  is  useless  to  try  t  i  give  an  inhalation  with  a 
tank-  and  funnel  or  any  such  makeshift.  A  properly  designed  inhaler 
and  close  fitting  mask  must  be  used. 

The  commission  on  resuscitation  has  examined  apparatus  on  the 
market  for  administering  the  oxygen  plus  carbon  dioxide  treatment  and 
find-  that  at  the  present  time  two  devices  alone  are  adequate  for  this 
pnrpose. 


166 

General  Directions  for  Giving  the  Inhalation  Treatment. — Start  us- 
ing the  inhaler  as  soon  as  you  can  after  the  patient  is  out  of  gas.  If  the 
patient  has  stopped  breathing,  start  artificial  respiration  immediately 
and  have  an  assistant  apply  the  inhalation  apparatus. 

In  using  the  apparatus,  open  the  valve  at  the  top  of  the  steel  bottle 
while  the  pointer  on  the  dial  is  at  0. 

Put  the  mask  over  the  patient's  face.  The  lower  part  should  go 
well  down  on  the  chin.  Press  down  firmly  over  the  nose.  Try  to  pre- 
vent leaks. 

As  soon  as  the  mask  is  properly  applied,  admit  the  oxygen  plus 
carbon  dioxide  into  the  bag  and  to  the  mask  at  the  rate  not  exceeding 
ten  liters  per  minute.  If  the  man  breathes  less  than  the  amount  fed, 
the  bag  will  stay  full.  If  he  breathes  more  than  the  amount,  the  bag 
will  collapse.  As  inhalation  proceeds,  adjust  the  valve  so  that  the  bag 
does  not  quite  collapse  at  each  breath,  but  do  not  give  any  more  than 
just  all  the  patient  takes  from  the  bag,  for  the  gas  in  the  tank  will  be 
rapidly  exhausted  if  wasted.  Continue  the  inhalation  for  twenty  to 
thirty  minutes  or  even  forty  minutes,  depending  upon  the  severity  of 
the  ase  and  until  the  patient  is  conscious  and  can  answer  questions. 

If  metal  bottles  of  oxygen  plus  carbon  dioxide  are  not  available  or 
become  exhausted,  pure  oxygen  should  be  used.  Oxygen  alone  is,  how- 
ever, a  substitute  and  does  not  fulfill  the  requirements  for  which  the 
inhalation  treatment  has  been  designed. 

Get  the  Man  out  of  Gas. — When  a  man  is  overcome  by  gas,  the 
first  thing  to  do  is  to  get  him  into  fresh  air  quickly.  Fresh  air  does  not 
mean  out  of  doors  in  cold  weather.  Many  men  have  walked  from  a 
warm  room  containing  gas  to  collapse  in  the  cold  outside  air.  Take  the 
patient  to  a  room  free  from  gas  and  comfortably  warm.  Be  quick,  but 
don't  be  unnecessarily  rough.  Remember  you  are  dealing  with  a  hu- 
man being. 

If  the  patient  is  unconscious,  place  him  on  his  belly.  If  the  patient 
is  not  breathing  or  his  breathing  stops,  start  artificial  respiration  at  once 
by  the  prone  pressure  method.  Don't  wait  for  apparatus  or  anything 
or  anyone  else.  Get  to  work  with  you  own  hands.  A  delay  of  even  a 
minute  may  be  fatal. 


THURSDAY,  JUNE  18,  MORNING  SESSION 

John   Ely,  Chief  of  Champaign   Fire  Department,  Chairman 


(iiai u.\i.\.\  Ely:  Gentlemen,  we  have  with  us  this  morning  Cap- 
tain J.  J.  Conway,  Superintendent  of  the  Underwriters'  Salvage  Corps, 
Cincinnati,  ( )hio.      (  Applause.  ) 

SAFEGUARDING  THE  BUSINESS  DISTRICT 

By  J.  J.  Conway,  Superintendent,  The  Underwriters'  Salvage  Corps, 

Cincinnati,  ( )hio 

Mr.  Chairman  and  Gentlemen:  I  have  been  assigned  a  sub- 
ject to  discuss  with  you  that   would  take  a  volume  if   1   were  to  touch 


167 

the  entire  subject,  so  whatever  I  do  will  be  to  touch  along  the  high 
places  and  leave  you  to  fill  in. 

I  am  more  than  delighted  to  be  here  before  a  body  of  men  engaged 
in  the  service  that  you  are  engaged  in.  You  can  take  what  you  might 
call  the  herOes  of  the  country  and  compare  their  services.  The  soldier 
must  be  well  trained,  must  be  well  drilled,  must  be  disciplined  and  must 
face  death  without  a  quiver.  So  must  the  fireman  be  disciplined  and 
obedient  and  fearless  of  any  danger  that  might  come  to  him.  But  with 
the  soldier  his  work  is  aided  and  intensified  by  the  rattle  of  the  mus- 
ketry, the  shout  of  his  comrades,  the  fight  which  aids  him  in  his  under- 
taking, and  the  result  of  his  faithful  performance  of  duty  is  the  smould- 
ering homes,  the  remains  of  cities  and  the  cry  of  the  widows  and  or- 
phans. The  work  you  are  engaged  in  is  the  protection  of  life  and  prop- 
erty, of  the  homes  of  our  people.  So,  when  you  compare  the  service  or 
the  duty  accomplished  by  the  two,  the  wreath  of  fame  should  be  placed 
upon  the  firemen.  Therefore  I  am  proud  to  be  here  and  add  a  word  in 
behalf  of  men  so  nobly  engaged. 

It  is  not  a  safe  thing  to  get  up  before  a  lot  of  firemen  and  try  to 
explain  to  them  duties  that  they  should  perform  and  probably  know 
how  to  perform  better  than  I. 

I  am  not  unmindful  of  dropping  into  a  college  one  day  where  there 
was  a  fire  school.  The  chief  of  the  fire  department  was  at  the  black- 
board ;  he  gave  the  dimensions  of  a  steam  engine  and  asked  a  man  to 
work  out  the  delivery  of  that  engine  per  minute.  One  young  man 
worked  it  out  very  quickly.  The  chief  turned  around  from  the  plat- 
form. In  the  meantime  I  came  in  and  took  a  back  seat  without  him 
seeing  me.  My  safety  director  was  with  me.  He  put  this  question. 
He  said,  "Now,  gentlemen,  suppose  there  was  a  building  on  fire,  a  lad- 
der up  to  the  third  story  window  where  there  was  a  woman  weighing 
300  pounds,  how  would  you  go  about  bringing  her  down  the  stairway, 
with  the  elevator  blocked?  An  Irishman  in  front  of  me  said,  "Make 
two  trips."  So  I  am  prepared  to  have  anything  of  that  kind  fired  at  me. 
The  professor  is  always  going  to  get  something  of  that  kind. 

The  subject  assigned  to  me  is  the  protection  of  the  high  value  dis- 
trict, that  is.  the  congested  value  of  any  city.  That  is  a  large  subject 
and  one  that  has  many  angles.  In  the  first  place,  before  starting  to  ex- 
tinguish a  fire  the  most  important  thing  is  to  prevent  the  fire,  and  the 
only  way  to  prevent  the  fire  is  to  eliminate  the  hazards  that  may  cause 
a  lire  and  then  eliminate  those  buildings  which  we  may  call  conflagra- 
tion breeders  and  spreaders.  These  are  buildings  which  cover  a  large 
area  and  are  lilted  with  highly  inflammable  material,  with  little  access 
for  the  lire  department  and  the  building  exposed  on  all  sides.  We  are 
slow  in  doing  those  things.  1  see,  if  1  walk  through  the  streets  of  al- 
most every  city,  a  big  frame  area  going  from  one  square  to  the  other. 
It  is  only  a  matter  of  time  until  the  lire  department  in  any  of  those 
cities  is  going  to  be  taxed  to  its  utmost  to  hold  the  lire  in  one  of  those 
buildings  when  it  starts. 

The  only  way  you  can  hold  a  lire  is  to  attack  it  in  time  and  attack 
it  with  force.  Don't  be,  afraid  to  put  your  streams  on  and  put  them 
on  in  the  proper  manner,  even  if  sometimes  you  are  criticized  for  using 


L68 

too  much  water.  You  will  be  more  severely  criticized  if  you  allow  the 
fire  to  go  beyond  the  bounds  of  that  building.  I  am  going  into  my  forty- 
ninth  year  of  fire  fighting  and  it  is  the  only  salvation  and  the  only  way 
to  fight  fire  in  the  congested  district,  hit  her  and  hit  her  hard  and  hit 
her  quick. 

When  you  come  to  the  fundamental  principles  of  fire  fighting  and 
the  protection  of  the  high  value  districts,  the  first  and  important  thing  is 
receiving  the  alarm  and  receiving  it  on  time.  Xo  matter  what  equip- 
ment you  have  in  your  station,  no  matter  how  well  a  man  is  trained, 
no  matter  how  good  your  water  supply  is,  if  you  fail  to  get  the  alarm 
until  the  fire  has  gone  beyond  the  bounds  which  your  forces  can  handle, 
your  equipment  and  yourself  are  helpless,  so  lay  stress  in  getting  your 
alarms  in  and  on  time  and  through  a  reliable  source,  so  you  know  you 
are  going  to  get  them  in  time  to  attack  the  fire. 

The  next  thing  is  to  surround  your  fire.  The  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  fire  fighting  is  to  confine  a  tire.  If  it  is  in  this  room  don't  let 
it  get  out  and  if  you  have  to  have  more  force  in  order  to  put  it  out, 
all  right,  but  with  the  force  you  have  stop  it  from  spreading.  Attack 
it  on  the  side  of  the  exposure  and  drive  it  back  in  the  burned  part  of 
the  building  and  hold  it  there,  but  don't  start  on  one  side  and  drive 
it  out  on  the  other.  That's  too  frequently  done  in  many  places  where 
the  idea  is  to  strike  the  flame  wherever  it  is.  That  you  can  not  do. 
If  you  are  to  save  your  congested  value  districts  there  has  to  be  help 
from  some  other  source  besides  the  extinguishing  source.  That's  the 
last  resort. 

The  shingle  roof  is  responsible  for  more  conflagrations  than  any 
other  cause.  We  will  take  Nashville  for  instance.  A  small  fire  started 
in  a  little  shack  built  on  posts  two  and  one-half  or  three  feet  above 
ground.  There  was  a  planing  mill  at  the  end  of  the  lot  and  the  wind 
was  blowing  toward  it.  The  story  is  that  there  was  a  slip  of  a  boy  living 
in  there  with  his  mother,  a  colored  child,  with  no  money  to  buy  a  ball, 
so  he  took  his  mother's  stocking,  unraveled  it  and  winding  it  up,  made 
a  ball.  They  had  an  open  fire  place,  and  as  he  bounced  the  ball  around 
the  ball  landed  in  the  fire.  When  he  got  it  out  it  was  burning  too  much 
for  him  to  pick  it  up,  so  he  kicked  it  out  of  doors.  That  ignited  some 
shavings  and  twenty-two  homes  were  lost  inside  of  two  and  one-half 
hours.  No  fire  department  in  the  world  could  meet  that  condition. 
The  sparks  would  go  a  quarter  of  a  mile.  They  go  in  this  direction 
and  in  that  direction  and  you  can  not  keep  up  with  the  shingle  root" 
fire.  There  is  no  lire  department  in  the  world  that  ever  put  out  a  con- 
flagration after  it  once  started.  It  either  burned  itself  out  or  the  wind 
shifted  and  carried  it  back.  So  you  are  helpless  if  your  lire  (Mice  gets 
away  from  you. 

Your  sti  earns  are  very  important.  Many  of  your  towns  are  de- 
pending on  what  we  might  call  the  1  lolly  system,  where  you  pump 
direct  into  the  mains  and  depend  on  the  mains  for  your  pressure  up 
to  loo  or  125  pounds.  It  is  highly  important  that  you  know  in  every 
square  how  many  streams  you  can  put  on  those  pipes  and  still  main- 
tain that  pressure,  because  it"  you  go  beyond  a  certain  draft  on  your 
pipes,  if  they  are  not    sufficiently  large,  you  are  going  to   reduce  each 


169 

stream  until  no  stream  is  effective.  So  in  your  towns  where  you  will 
be  called  on  for  many  streams  for  fire  extinguishing  you  should  by 
test  determine  to  your  own  satisfaction  that  the  flow  in  that  district  is 
sufficient  to  give  you  a  good  fire  stream,  and  really  in  a  heavy  Are  a 
good  fire  stream  calls  for  100  pounds  at  the  nozzle.  Many  of  you 
have  not  got  more  than  100  pounds  on  the  pipe.  Your  friction  in  the 
pipe  itself,  what  we  call  loss  of  head  in  the  pipe,  and  your  friction  in 
the  line  reduce  you  materially. 

I  had  an  instance  of  that  kind  to  occur  one  time.  Air.  Archibald 
was  chief  of  the  Cincinnati  fire  department.  He  came  to  my  station 
in  a  hurry  one  morning  and  said,  "1  have  a  telegram  from  town  so 
and  so,  asking  for  help."  I  could  not  ride  in  my  buggy, — we  had 
horses  at  that  time, — so  I  said  to  the  C.  H.  &  D.  railroad,  "Get  some 
flat  cars  next  to  the  platform  so  Ave  can  load."  We  started  for  the 
depot.  The  thought  struck  me  as  1  drove  past  Fourth  and  Walnut 
streets.  I  jumped  off  the  buggy,  ran  into  the  telegraph  office  and  wired, 
"Cut  down  the  streams  until  they  become  effective."  I  jumped  into 
the  buggy,  went  to  the  depot  and  loaded  our  engines.  We  were  hold- 
ing a  passenger  train  to  let  us  out  ahead.  I  said,  "Let's  jump  on  that 
passenger  and  go  up  and  see  what  he  has  got."  When  I  got  there  he 
threw  his  arm  around  my  neck  and  said,  "That's  what  was  the  matter, 
everybody  was  laying  lines  from  every  plug  and  nobody  had  a  fire 
stream." 

You  should  know  the  flow  in  any  particular  section  and  then  figure 
that  you  want  460  gallons  for  each  one  of  those  nozzles,  for  it  takes 
460  gallons  to  fill  an  inch  and  a  quarter  nozzle  with  100  pounds  of 
pressure,  and  then  give  orders  not  to  lay  more  lines  than  that,  unless 
you  put  your  engines  on.  That  has  been  the  cause  of  many  a  man 
losing  his  fire,  when  he  put  an  overdraft  on  the  line.  No  pipe  should 
be  laid  in  any  section  that  will  not  deliver  the  number  of  streams  neces- 
sary for  practical  fire  fighting  for  the  worst  emergency  case,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  consumption.  That  is,  if  the  daily  consumption  on  those 
pipes  is  a  certain  amount,  you  figure  you  want  ten  or  fifteen  streams 
in  order  to  hold  that  square,  then  you  want  to  figure  that  and  see  that 
your  pipes  will  deliver  that  much  or  at  least  put  in  a  protest  against 
the  pipes  not  being  sufficiently  large,  so  that  when  the  time  of  the 
emergency  comes  and  you  are  lost  for  the  lack  of  water,  you  can  put 
the  responsibility  on  somebody  other  than  yourself. 

Now,  those  things  will  come  up  slowly.  You  will  meet  with  oppo- 
sition. We  had  a  waterworks  that  was  deteriorated  years  ago  and 
for  six  years  I  kept  continuously  pounding  at  the  city  officials  and  citi- 
zens at  large,  through  our  newspapers,  that  it  was  absolutely  impossible 
with  our  going  consumption  for  that  waterworks  to  maintain  a  suffi- 
cient water  supply  to  save  our  city.  It  took  six  years  of  argument 
and  persuasion  before  we  got  them  started,  with  the  result  we  ran  out 
of  water  one  year  before  the  new  waterworks  was  built.  Then  every- 
body was  wondering  why  somebody  did  not  start  sooner.  That's  the 
condition  you  will  find,  but  that's  only  one  part. 

Hie  part  that  should  have  gone  ahead  of  that  is  that  architects 
and  engineers  must  come  to  the  assistance  of  the   lire   lighters.     The 


170 

fire  fighters  can  not  keep  up  the  equipment  and  extinguish  fires  in 
buildings  that  have  been  built  so  fires  can  spread  from  one  end  to  the 

other  without  stopping,  when  it  is  an  economical  proposition  and  very 
easy  to  remedy.  A  copper  chimney  built  in  a  house  will  not  cost  in 
excess  of  the  present  method  of  building  chimneys.  A  safe  chimney 
will  not  cost  $25  to  $30  at  the  outside.  Why  not  compel  them  to  put 
them  in  right  instead  of  letting  them  burn,  one  after  the  other?  That's 
one  of  our  most  common  causes  of  fire,  defective  flues. 

The  next  thing  after  the  fire  starts, — and  this  is  an  instance  where 
the  architect  and  engineer  in  constructing  the  building  can  do  more 
than  anybody  else, — is  to  close  off  the  vertical  openings  and  cut  down 
areas,  which  can  be  easily  done.  I  see  great  frame  areas  going  from 
one  end  of  a  square  to  the  other.  The  building  could  be  used  for  the 
purpose  it  is  now  used  for  and  there  could  be  a  stop  in  the  middle  of 
the  building  that  would  save  at  least  half  and  keep  it  from  getting  to 
that  magnitude  which  might  be  called  a  conflagration.  An  architect 
or  engineer  will  draft  a  building,  enclose  his  elevators  or  stairways  in 
perfect  stops  and  go  across  the  room  and  cut  a  six  inch  hole  to  take 
a  four  inch  soil  pipe  through  and  leave  it  that  way.  They  forget  there 
is  no  crack  or  crevice  that  can  be  left  between  floors  that  will  not  carry 
the  gases  and  the  smoke  to  the  upper  floors  ;  when  they  become  filled 
with  smoke  that  again  descends  through  the  same  crack,  coming  in 
contact  with  the  flame.  Then  you  have  an  explosion  and  your  build- 
ing is  gone,  because  that  smoke  is  nothing  more  than  unconsumed  gas. 
When  you  see  the  flame  of  fire  you  see  the  consumed  gas  burning  and 
the  smoke  is  the  unconsumed  gas  and  if  that  comes  in  contact  with 
the  flame  again  you  are  going  to  have  an  explosion  and  fire  in  every 
crevice  that  smoke  is  in.  Therefore,  one  of  the  most  important  things, 
not  only  to  the  saving  of  the  property  and  extinguishing  the  fire,  but 
to  the  saving  of  life,  is  the  proper  enclosing  of  fire  escapes  so  people 
can  get  out  of  the  building. 

Last  night  you  saw  that  picture  show  and  you  were  told,  and  it 
was  demonstrated  by  the  picture,  that  these  inflammable  films  will 
burn  under  water.  That's  true.  Water  will  not  extinguish  them. 
They  make  one  of  the  hottest  fires  you  ever  witnessed  if  thev  are  in 
any  quantity,  so  wherever  films  arc  stored  they  should  be  stored  in 
fire-proof  buildings  and  only  a  certain  amount,  the  smallest  amount 
possible  to  do  the  business,  should  be  open  and  on  the  outside  at  one 
time.  All  they  will  do  is  to  burn  quickly,  but  the  gas  generated  from 
them  as  they  burn,  if  it  is  not  carried  off,  becomes  one  of  the  strongest 
explosives  you  have.  There  is  no  building  yet  built  that  would  take 
any  quantity,  I  mean  any  fair  sized  quantity,  of  films,  and  stand  the 
explosion  that  would  occur  after  ignition  if  the  building  were  not 
ventilated  and  ventilated  very  quickly.  Therefore,  if  I  were  making 
rules  for  storing  films,  every  one  of  the  top  windows  would  have  to 
have  weights  taken  off  and  be  held  shut  with  wire's  so  the  minute  there 
is  a  lire  the  windows  would  drop.  If  they  become  ignited  as  they  go 
out  a  window  they  will  burn  anything  within  forty  or  fifty  feet.  A 
film  fire  is  the  hottest  flame  I  have  ever  witnessed  in  nxy  life. 


171 

In  protecting  your  high  value  districts  you  must  bring  to  your 
assistance  several  ordinances  that  will  compel  the  proper  construction 
and  then  you  must  bring  to  your  assistance  the  citizens  whose  lives 
and  property  you  are  protecting.  You  must  make  them  listen  to  you 
and  they  must  remove  those  hazards  which  are  dangerous  to  the  entire 
community. 

The  littering  of  a  dump  was  the  cause  of  a  fire.  With  a  high  wind 
it  caught  the  fences  in  the  rear,  the  little  coal  houses  and  other  things, 
finally  got  the  buildings  themselves  and  wiped  out  a  fair  sized  city.  At 
Paris,  Texas,  the  sparks  from  a  locomotive  fell  on  a  shed  and  Paris 
went.  See  how  small  the  fire  was  in  the  start  and  how  important  your 
early  notification  and  quick  application  is?  That's  the  whole  secret  of 
fire  fighting. 

1  he  burning  of  Augusta,  Georgia,  was  attributed  to  an  electric  iron 
left  with  the  current  on  in  a  millinery  shop.  All  had  their  origin  in  a 
small  way,  but  spread  quickly. 

We  are  throwing  the  strictest  kind  of  restrictions  on  the  better 
structures  as  they  are  being  built  and  we  are  paying  no  attention  or  have 
not  been  paying  attention  to  the  old  structures. 

You  take  your  medical  profession.  They  have  found  out  what  is 
contagious  disease,  what  causes  contagious  disease  and  how  it  spreads, 
and  they  are  backed  up  by  the  strongest  kind  of  laws  to  eliminate  all 
those  things.  If  it  breaks  out  in  your  neighborhood,  they  compel  you 
to  go  through  a  vaccination  or  things  of  that  kind  to  prevent  the  spread 
of  it.  But,  when  we  leave  what  we  call  conflagration  breeders  in  our 
midst,  they  not  only  take  ourselves,  but  our  property  with  it. 

The  time  has  come  in  America  when  we  can  not  any  longer  hold 
down  the  fire  risk.  We  have  the  best  trained  men  in  the  world  fight- 
ing fire  and  yet  our  fire  waste  is  growing  by  leaps  and  bounds.  We 
can  not  depend  entirely  on  extinguishment.  We  must  go  out  into  the 
field  and  preach  the  gospel  the  same  as  the  medical  people  and  others. 
We  must  prevent  the  improper  construction  of  buildings.  We  must 
prevent  the  openings  that  will  allow  the  spread  of  fire.  We  must 
require  fire  escapes  and  things  of  that  kind  for  the  protection  of  peo- 
ple who  work  in  those  buildings  and  we  have  to  get  laws  by  which 
we  can  remove  those  things  that  will  cause  what  you  might  term  a 
conflagration,  or  a  fire  beyond  what  would  be  an  individual  fire  or  one 
that  would  tax  your  department  to  its  utmost.  Supposing  you  were 
fighting  a  fire  of  that  kind  today  and  a  fire  would  break  out  in  the 
opposite  part  of  the  town,  where  you  are?   Those  are  important  things. 

We  are  standing  on  the  threshold  of  destruction  all  the  time. 
The  fire  lighters  of  this  country  have  done  wonderful  work  in  pro- 
tecting property  and  the  lives  of  the  people,  but  the  drain  from  the 
fire  waste  of  this  country  has  gotten  to  a  place  where  it  cannot  be 
borne  any  longer. 

There  is  a  false  impression  and  always  has  been, — and  why  any- 
body should  have  that  impression  I  don't  know, — but  there  is  a  fool 
impression  that  the  insurance  companies  pay  losses.  I  low  could  they 
and  remain  solvent?  It  is  immaterial  what  an  insurance  company 
thinks  other  than   to   get   advice    from   their  engineers   who   have  been 


172 

trained  along  those  lines  and  may  be  of  service  to  yon.  They  hold 
within  their  hands  the  means  to  protect  themselves.  Insurance  com- 
panies are  only  collectors  and  distributors,  plus  a  fair  amount  for  the 
capital  invested,  and  who  is  paying  it?  The  inhabitants  of  that  village. 
That's  the  reason  rates  are  different  in  different  sections.  In  order 
to  maintain  it  they  collect  in  each  district  as  nearly  as  possible  the  fire 
waste,  plus  the  expenses  and  plus  a  fair  profit,  so  it  is  the  public  that 
is  paying.  When  the  shoe  maker  pays  a  premium  on  insurance  he  adds 
it  into  the  shoes.  It  is  added  by  the  leather  man.  It  is  added  in  the 
tannery.  It  is  added  in  the  factory  and  in  retail  sales  departments. 
The  man  that  wears  the  shoes  out  pays  the  whole  toll.  The  consumer 
is  paying  the  toll  all  the  time. 

If  the  consumer  would  only  realize  these  costs  of  fire  prevention, 
fire  protection  and  fire  extinguishing  and  fire  waste,  which  has  now 
got  to  be  over  $500,000,000  a  year  and  almost  that  much  more  paid 
in  services  for  extinguishing, — -that  is  twice  as  much,  gentlemen,  for 
your  fire  waste  as  it  cost  to  build  the  Panama  Canal !  When  you 
built  your  Panama  Canal,  or  before  you  started  to  build  it,  there  was 
something  to  do.  Men  could  not  live  down  there.  They  became  vic- 
tims of  disease  and  what  did  they  do  ?  They  went  in  there  and  made 
it  as  healthy  a  place  to  live  today  as  it  is  here.  And  so  it  is  with 
fire  fighting.  If  we  will  remove  the  cause  of  spread  and  cause  of  fire, 
which  are  very  simple  and  easy  to  control,  we  can  cut  down  this 
heavy  cost  coming  back  to  the  consumer  in  everything  he  drinks,  eats 
and  wears,  although  he  does  not  know  it  is  coming  back  to  him. 

As  long  as  these  conditions  exist  Ave  have  to  combat  them  as  best 
we  can,  but  you  leave  them  with  every  opportunity  to  flank  us  on 
every  side  and  give  us  as  small  a  force  with  as  little  money  to  operate 
our  department  as  possible.  In  Cincinnati  we  are  operating  with 
twenty-two  companies,  182  men  and  40,000  feet  of  hose,  less  than 
we  had  in  1916.  That's  due  to  taxes  not  permitting  sufficient  funds 
to  maintain  the  department,  but  those  are  conditions  over  which  we 
have  no  control  and  which  we  have  to  work  with  ;  therefore,  throw 
your  great  force  on  fire  prevention  and  throw  the  responsibility  for 
those  things  that  will  cause  a  fire  to  get  beyond  your  control  on  to 
the  shoulders  of  those  that  are  permitting  them  to  remain.  Do  not 
allow  yourself  to  be  blamed  if  the  fire  occurs. 

I  told  you  in  the  start  to  hit  them  and  hit  them  hard.  That  is 
your  only  salvation.  If  you  go  to  the  individual  lire,  seventy  per  cent 
of  the  loss  is  damage  by  water  and  smoke.  In  other  words,  not  over 
twenty-live  per  cent  of  the  goods,  buildings  and  other  things  come  in 
actual  contact  with  the  flame.  But  do  not  be  discouraged  in  any  way 
by  how  much  wet  goods  you  have.  You  can  do  something  with  wet 
goods  and  you  cannot  do  anything  with  ashes.  If  you  hesitate  too  long 
with  your  application  of  water,  you  will  feel  the  truth  which  was 
recognized  when  the  Bible  was  written,  "lie  who  hesitates  is  lost." 
Hit  her  and  hit  her  quick  and  hit  her  with  sufficient  volume.  He  pre- 
pared. 

Go  through  your  town  and  see  what  yon  may  need  to  hold  a  fire 
within    certain   bounds   and    see   whether  you    have    nozzles    sufficiently 


173 

large  to  deliver  the  volume  of  water  necessary  for  the  heat  in  the 
square  to  he  affected.  When  yen  have  the  necessary  equipment  and 
can  use  it  intelligently,  as  it  should  be  used,  you  have  done  all  you  can 
do. 

hi  lire  fighting  years  ago  all  one  heard  was,  "Don't  let  any  air 
in,  don't  let  any  draft  in."  That':;  the  most  insane  idea  in  lire  fighting 
there  ever  was.  Get  your  ventilation.  You  can  not  get  to  the  tire 
until  you  do  ventilate  it.  If  there  is  an  elevator  going  through  the 
building  with  a  pent  house  on  it,  knock  that  off,  knock  the  windows 
out  in  the  upper  part  of  the  building  and  let  it  ventilate.  We  will 
say  that  was  the  elevator  over  there.  If  I  could  open  the  top  of  that 
elevator  and  this  was  afire  1  would  not  have  more  lire  than  fifteen  feet 
on  the  side  of  that  elevator:  with  the  pressure  I  could  come  behind 
with  my  hose  and  put  it  out.  As  long  as  I  mushroom  my  fire,  keeping 
that  gas  in  there,  I  am  endangering  my  men  from  an  explosion  any 
time  and  I  am  throwing  water  into  smoke  instead  of  fire,  so  ventila- 
tion is  an  important  thing  in  fire  extinguishing.  It  took  some  of  us 
old  fellows  a  long  time  to  get  that  in  our  heads.  We  kept  saying  to 
you,  better  to  keep  the  draft  away  from  it,  but  after  a  while  Ave  dis- 
covered we  had  something  to  learn  and  that  was  one  of  the  things. 
Ventilation  is  one  of  the  most  important  things  there  is  in  fire  fight- 
ing. Therefore,  if  it  is  possible  under  the  forces  that  you  have,  drill 
into  your  ladder  truckmen  that  it  is  nothing  hut  ventilation,  and  im- 
mediately after  the  pipemen  come  to  that  tire  they  will  put  it  out  with 
less  cost,  less  damage,  faster  and  surer  in  every  way. 

I  had  a  fellow  say  to  me  yesterday  around  here,  as  we  were  talk- 
ing about  something,  "You  can  not  teach  an  old  dog  new  tricks."  He 
is  far  off  the  track.  All  you  have  to  do  is  to  take  the  old  dog  and  let 
him  run  with  the  puppies  and  he  will  learn  new  tricks.     (Applause.) 

We  are  going  along  and  those  are  important  things,  gentlemen. 
Compared  with  foreign  countries  we  must  hang  our  heads  in  shame. 
as  their  per  capita  fire  losses  are  so  much  less  than  ours.  When  you 
ask  why  it  is,  some  will  say,  "better  construction,  better  fire  ex- 
tinguishers." but  there  is  nothing  farther  from  the  truth  than  that. 
They  have  no  better  construction  than  we  have  and  not  half  as  good  a 
lire  extinguishing  force  as  we  have,  but  they  do  this':  They  hold  a 
man  in  those  countries  responsible  for  anything  that  occurs  on  his 
premises  and  damages  ins  neighbor  and  we  don't.  We  go  out  and 
condole  with  the  man  who  had  a  lire  that  could  have  been  avoided.  In- 
stead of  condoling  with  him  we  should  hold  him  up  before  the  bar  of 
public  opinion  as  a  man  injuring  the  public,  unless  he  can  prove  in  no 
way  was  he  responsible  for  the  lire.  Until  we  do  that  we  will  have  this 
same  carelessness,  this  same  indifference  going  on. 

I  tried  to  show  you  a  minute  ago  that  the  costs  of  this  waste  come 
back  to  the  consumer.  So  it  is  with  everything,  it  comes  back  to  the 
working  man.  We  had  a  fire  in  the  city,  village  you  might  call  it,  not 
far  from  our  place.  There  was  one  large  plant  owned  by  the  Pullman 
Palace  Car  company.  One  night  it  burned.  Directly  afterwards  the 
company  decided  that  they  were  going  to  take  that  shop  to  Pullman, 
Illinois.     There  were  500  men  skilled  in  a  certain  kind  of  work,  cabinet 


174 

makers,  and  there  was  no  demand  for  that  kind  of  work  in  that  part 
of  the  country.  Nobody  took  notice  of  it  for  a  week  or  two.  Then 
they  commenced  coming  across  the  bridge.  It  cost  fifteen  cents  to  get 
out  to  the  factories  in  other  places  and  they  had  to  work  at  some  pro- 
fession they  were  not  skilled  in  for  one-third  the  wages  they  had  been 
getting  for  the  high  skilled  labor.  In  another  week  the  butcher  ^hop. 
the  baker  shop  and  the  savings  associations  left  and  then  the  town  went 
up  in  a  howl,  asking  adjoining  cities  to  join  with  them  and  go  to 
Pullman,  Illinois,  and  ask  the  Pullman  company  to  reestablish  there. 
A  payroll  of  $25,000  a  week  was  lost  to  that  city.  That  is  what  main- 
tained them.  The  business  men  never  realized  that  the  destruction  of 
that  plant  meant  the  destruction  of  their  business  and  income.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  concrete  examples  there  ever  was  that  the  loss  comes 
back  to  everyone. 

I  keep  a  chart.  I  may  be  off  my  subject,  but  I  keep  a  chart  of  one, 
five,  ten  and  fifteen  years  of  the  hours  of  day  that  fires  occur  and  my 
peak  load  is  on  after  quitting  time  at  night.  My  next  peak  load  i^  on 
after  quitting  time  at  noon.  Why  the  heavy  damage  in  dollars  and 
cents  is  between  ten  and  eleven  at  night  is  because  they  are  the  same 
fires,  but  are  not  discovered  until  late.  I  go  before  the  working  man 
and  show  him  in  his  haste  to  leave  the  building  he  lights  a  cigar  and 
throws  the  match  away  or  that  he  leaves  electric  current  on  or  some- 
thing else  undone,  or  does  not  do  something  he  ought  to  and  tomorrow 
he  is  out  of  employment.  You  have  to  find  the  cause.  For  years  I 
pounded  at  all  the  commercial  organizations,  but  I  did  not  get  any  place 
because  I  was  talking  to  the  foreman,  the  superintendent,  the  owner  or 
stockholder  of  the  place.  When  I  went  back  to  the  men  they  thought 
I  was  bringing  to  them  something  to  restrict  their  liberties  or  in- 
crease their  output.  They  said.  "The  hell  with  you."  When  I  showed 
them,  I  reduced  the  loss  from  one  of  the  highest  ratios  in  the  United 
States.  Notwithstanding  the  reduction  in  fire  extinguishing  equip- 
ment, I  have  held  it  below  the  average,  but  it  is  not  putting  out  fires,  it 
is  the  work  of  getting  people  to  help  me  prevent  fires  and  getting  men 
to  realize  that  their  employment  depends  on  their  doing  that  very  thing; 
maybe  not  only  their  employment,  but  their  own  lives  depend  on  it  and 
the  lives  of  their  families.  When  I  get  the  cooperation  of  the  working 
men  an'd  people  who  do  things  in  the  factor}',  then  I  begin  to  get  my 
fire  losses  down. 

As  you  go  along  you  have  to  bring  to  your  assistance  also,  by  edu- 
cation, those  who  are  employing  people  and  see  that  they  put  them  in 
buildings  where  they  are  properly  safeguarded.  You  have  to  bring 
home  to  them  the  responsibility  that  rests  on  them  for  the  destruction 
of  any  merchandise  that  may  be  caused  by  lire  if  they  can  prevent  it. 
because  the  laws  of  supply  and  demand  mean  that  the  more  I  destroy 
by  fire  or  otherwise  the  higher  you  have  to  pay  for  the  remaining 
amount. 

The  fire  loss  of  the  country  today  has  more  to  do  with  the  high 
cost  of  living  than  any  one  thing  I  can  point  out,  so  1  say  to  Mr.  Fac- 
tory Owner  or  the  corporation  or  whatever  it  is.  you  owe  it  to  us  and 
also  to  the  people,  that  you   put   devices   in  your  buildings   which   will 


175 

assure  the  protection  of  buildings  and  the  people  that  occupy  them.  I 
call  to  his  attention  that  the  first  thing  a  first-class  purchasing  agent 
does  when  he  puts  in  an  order  is  to  find  out  the  ability  of  the  factory 
to  deliver  at  a  certain  period  the  goods  he  orders.  If  it  is  subject  to 
fire  and  destruction  by  fire,  the  other  fellow  is  out.  He  will  not  place 
his  order.  The  installation  of  the  automatic  devices  to  give  an  alarm 
so  the  fire  department  can  get  a  quick  application,  that,  I  want  to  repeat, 
is  the  whole  secret  of  hre  fighting.  By  the  installation  of  automatic 
switches,  by  the  closing  of  vertical  openings,  a  building  can  be  made  as 
safe  as  though  a  one  storv  building.  If  that  can  be  done,  why  not  do 
it? 

Those  are  the  lines  we  have  been  working  along. — education,  to 
get  the  organizations  to  see  that  they  have  a  further  duty  than  the 
mere  making  of  money,  which  would  cease  the  minute  the  factory  was 
destroyed  ;  that  nobody  cares  to  place  an  order  with  a  place  apt  to  go 
up  in  flames  at  any  time  and  that  it  was  an  injustice  to  the  public  to 
maintain  such  a  place.  Those  are  the  things  that  brought  success  to 
us  and  might  bring  success  to  you  if  followed  in  the  same  line. 

Fire  fighting  is  a  science  ;  it  is  an  art.  It  can  not  be  learned  from 
books.  You  can  learn  it  and  talk  it.  but  when  you  get  on  the  firing 
line  you  are  lost.  It  takes  a  man  of  experience,  a  man  grown  up  with 
it. 

I  have  gone  over  my  time  and  have  not  touched  the  subjects  dear- 
est to  me.  Not  having  known  I  had  gone  so  far  over  the  time,  I  got 
a  little  frightened,  due  to  the  fact  we  are  running  on  daylight  savings 
and  my  watch  is  an  hour  ahead.  But  those  things,  gentlemen,  are 
highly  important  in  fire  fighting. 

You  will  hear  somebody  criticize  you  for  having  a  great  water 
damage.  We  will  say  in  a  six  story  building  you  had  a  fire  on  the 
top  floor,  how  else  were  you  going  to  put  it  out?  Those  standing  on 
the  outside  may  think  it  excess,  but  you  don't.  You  knew  what  you 
were  doing  under  the  circumstances.  You  can  give  a  little  more  serv- 
ice and  a  better  service  and  prevent  a  great  deal  of  that  criticism  by 
going  along  the  lines  I  explained  to  you. 

Years  ago  when  we  went  to  a  fire  we  thought  our  onlv  duty 
was  to  extinguish  the  flame  and  return  to  our  house  ready  for  another. 
Later  on  we  realized  by  carrying  brooms,  shovels  and  things  of  that 
kind  we  might  clean  up  and  prevent  the  water  from  doing  a  further 
damage  by  getting  it  out  of  the  building  as  soon  as  possible  after  the 
fire.  If  seventy  per  cent  of  your  tire  waste  is  coming  from  water  and 
smoke,  that  can  be  cut  in  two. 

A  year  ago  I  came  back  from  Los  Angeles,  where  I  went  to  help 
Chief  Scott  in  the  training  of  his  men.  He  put  two  complete  crews 
in.  That's  all  right  for  a  residence  district  where  you  are  only  going 
to  ttse  a  few  covering-,  but  in  the  heart  of  your  city  you  have  two  on 
number  one,  three  on  number  two.  four  on  number  four  and  some  fel- 
low wants  a  cover,  but  he  is  beaten  to  it;  he  runs  to  another  wagon 
and  is  beaten  again.  If  you  get  one  piece  of  apparatus  with  one  man 
to  bring  it  to  the  tire  and  use  whatever  spare  men  you  can  to  use 
those  covers  at  the  tire,  you  will  do  a  great  deal  towards  cutting  down 


176 

the  waste  and  criticism  of  excess  waste  of  water.  You  can  not  put 
out  lire  without  water,  but  you  will  find  you  will  go  into  this  work  and 
probabjy  be  retarded  from  taking  it  up  by  the  idea  you  are  saving 
something  for  the  insurance  companies.     That's  not  true. 

I  followed  that  thing  the  country  over.  They  started  a  few  sal- 
vage corps,  twenty-one  in  the  United  States,  because  they  saw  it  could 
be  demonstrated  that  they  were  of  great  value  to  the  public  and  to 
the  citizens  that  maintained  them.  Out  of  that  grew  the  present  fire 
department.  Many  of  you  here  are  older  than  I  am  and  you  remember 
the  time  when  you  would  go  along  the  street  and  see  a  fire  up  on  the 
house.  The  Aetna  Insurance  company,  or  some  other  insurance  com- 
pany that  had  volunteer  companies,  would  put  it  out  if  it  was  insured 
in  their  company,  but  if  it  was  not  they  would  go  home  and  leave  it  for 
the  other  fellow.  Soon  the  people  realized  there  should  be  protection 
for  all  property,  whether  insured  or  not.  Then  came  the  volunteer  fire 
department,  out  of  which  grew  the  paid  fire  department.  We  have 
grown  up  now  to  the  most  scientific  apparatus  known.  "We  can  go 
farther  and  cut  down  the  waste  caused  by  water  by  carrying  a  few 
covers  without  very  many  additional  men  in  smaller  places  and  only 
using  those  men  spared  from  some  other  work. 

I  have  taken  up  a  great  deal  of  your  time  and  want  to  assure  you 
it  has  been  a  great  pleasure  for  me  to  have  been  here  and  I  would  like 
to  have  had  more  time  to  have  laid  stress  on  some  things  I  know.  Be- 
fore sitting  down  I  want  to  say  one  word.  Too  many  people,  includ- 
ing ourselves,  are  a  little  bit  peeved  or  distressed  if  somebody  says 
that  something  we  did  yesterday  was  absolutely  wrong.  The  first  thing 
we  want  to  do  is  to  get  that  out  our  heads.  When  we  come  home  from 
a  fire  call  we  should  sit  down,  the  chief,  his  assistants,  captains  and 
lieutenants,  and  say,  "Boys,  we  had  a  fire  at  such  and  such  a  place, 
what  did  we  learn,  what  happened  over  there,  if  it  should  happen 
tomorrow  would  we  do  the  same  thing?"  Get  them  to  realize  you  are 
not  criticizing  that  fire,  but  want  to  find  how  much  education  came  to 
you  and  them  from  fighting  that  fire  and  what  you  might  avoid  the 
next  time,  if  a  mistake  was  made.  With  that  cooperation  and  dis- 
cussion among  your  own  men,  as  to  whether  there  was  any  way  that 
they  could  have  done  better,  you  will  bring  education  into  the  depart- 
ment that  will  be  highly  valuable.  I  thank  you  ever  so  much.  (  Ap- 
plause.) 

DISCUSSION 

Mr.  Gamber:  Mr.  Chairman,  I  was  a  little  timid  in  the  introduc- 
tion of  Captain  Conway,  knowing  him  as  I  haw1  for  a  number  of 
years.  I  knew  he  was  timid  and  1  did  not  want  to  say  some  of  the 
things  before  he  started,  lie  is  like  a  schoolboy;  you  can  sweep  him 
off  his  feet.  Whal  I  want  to  say  is  that  I  have  known  Captain  Conway 
for  eight  years.  Captain  Conway  performed  one  of  the  greatest  serv- 
ices for  firemen,  and  especially  his  home  city.  Cincinnati,  that  has  ever 
been  performed  by  any  fireman  in  the  world.  Years  ago  Captain  Con- 
way started  in  Cincinnati  when  the  rates  of  insurance  there  were  some- 
thing like  nine  or  ten   dollars  per  capita  per  year.     Captain   Conway 


took  the  matter  in  hand  and  today  Cincinnati  enjoys  the  lowest  lire  in- 
surance rate  of  any  city  of  its  size  in  the  world.  That's  the  record  he 
has  made.  He  studies  it,  he  eats  it,  he  sleeps  it  and  he  is  always  work- 
ing on  it.  He  is  always  on  the  job.  It  is  the  experience  he  has  had. 
He  has  gone  through  a  severe  school  of  experience. 

Some  fifteen  years  ago — I  am  going  to  say  this,  he  is  here  and  seems 
to  have  grown  a  little  stouter  since  then — in  the  Presto-Lite  lire  in 
Cincinnati,  Captain  Conway  was  blown,  I  don't  know  how  many  feet, 
through  the  brick  wall  and  lay  at  the  point  of  death  for  about  nine 
months.  After  he  got  on  his  feet  he  studied  it  over  and  began  to  won- 
der how  it  happened  and  why  it  happened.  He  has  taken  up  this  work 
throughout  the  United  States.  He  knows  how.  He  gets  it  over  and  if 
some  of  the  rest  of  us  would  attempt  to  go  out  and  say  some  of  the 
things  Captain  Conway  does,  the  fellows  on  the  National  Board  would 
jump  all  over  us  and  walk  on  us,  but  Captain  Conway  gets  by  with  it 
and  says  the  things  that  ought  to  be  said  and  brings  them  home  to  the 
National  Board  fellows  and  makes  them  like  it.  I  have  asked  Captain 
Conway  time  and  again  to  tell  me  how  he  does  it.  He  says,  "Go  to  it, 
tell  them  the  truth  and  they  will  like  it." 

I  feel  it  is  in  justice  to  Captain  Conway  that  I  say  these  things  and 
before  we  go  to  the  next  subject  I  know  some  of  you  have  some  things 
on  your  mind  you  would  like  to  ask  him.  The  captain  made  a  study 
of  all  this  work  and  for  the  next  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  let  this  be  a 
school  room  and  let's  ask  the  captain  questions.  I  know  he  will  be 
more  than  delighted  to  answer  them  for  you,  if  it  is  within  his  power. 

Chairman  Ely:     Any  question  anyone  wants  to  ask? 

Mr.  Con  way:  While  you  are  thinking  of  the  questions,  I  would 
like  to  tell  you  a  story  brought  to  my  mind  by  that  after-introduction. 
There  was  an  Irishman  living  in  Middletown,  Ohio,  who  did  not  have 
any  education.  I  don't  know  what  we  would  have  done  with 
him  if  he  had  an  education.  He  broke  up  every  meeting  we  ever  had. 
He  belonged  to  some  building  organization  or  an  organization  of  a 
bank  there.  They  broke  up.  He  had  some  of  his  money  in  it  and  as 
time  rolled  on  the  president  of  the  bank  called  the  creditors  together 
and  explained  how  the  disaster  came  about,  told  them  he  felt  so  badly 
about  the  thing  that  if  it  were  possible  to  cut  up  his  body  and  divide 
it  among  those  that  lost  money,  he  would  be  perfectly  willing  to  do  so. 
The  Irishman  said,  "If  you  do  give  me  your  gall." 

Mr.  Wolf:  Gentlemen,  if  I  may  say  a  word.  I  don't  think  any- 
body knows  Captain  Conway  any  better  than  I  do.  1  want  to  say 
the  only  thing  I  have  against  Captain  Conway  is  that  he  consumes  more 
cigars  for  a  man  that  does  not  smoke  than  any  man  you  ever  knew. 
As  soon  as  we  get  on  the  ground  the  captain  comes  around  feeling  for 
cigars.    He  don't  smoke  them,  he  chews  them. 

I  am  from  Cincinnati  and  we  all  love  Captain  Conway  for  what 
he  is  and  what  he  has  done  in  the  past.  There  was  a  testimonial  dinner 
tendered  to  Captain  Conway  by  the  best  people  of  Cincinnati,  the  busi- 
ness interests,  the  banking  interests,  the  working  interests, — everybody 
tendered  him  a  wonderful  testimonial  dinner  and  we  are  all  proud  of 
Captain  Conway  in  Cincinnati,  not  only  for  what  he  has  done,  but  for 


178 


what  he  is  still  doing.  Everything  we  have  in  Cincinnati  in  the  way 
of  insurance  rates,  fire  protection,  fire  insurance,  etc. J  think  we  owe 
to  Captain  Conway.  If  you  will  stop  to  think,  your  theatrical  inspec- 
tions, the  inspection  of  theatres  and  the  fire-proofing  of  theatrical  scen- 
ery, originated  in  Cincinnati ;  your  first  big  clean-up  campaign  origi- 
nated in  Cincinnati  and  Captain  Conway  is  responsible  for  it  all.  We 
love  him  not  only  for  what  he  has  done,  but  for  what  he  is,  and  we  are 
proud  to  know  he  is  from  Cincinnati  and  I  am  proud  to  be  his  friend. 

Mr.  Conway  :  It  might  be  interesting  to  know  why  in  fire  pre- 
vention work  the  clean-up  and  paint-up  wras  put  in.  If  I  had  stayed 
on  fire  prevention  I  could  not  have  brought  up  the  interest.  I  took 
in  sodding  and  beautifying  the  lawns  and  explained  to  the  people  the 
reason  of  the  painting  was  conservation,  the  protection  of  wood  and 
wire  and  other  things  from  deteriorating  by  rust,  and  by  taking  in  the 
whole  thing  by  and  by  I  got  a  fellow  in  a  square  to  plant  some  flowers. 
His  neighbor  got  jealous  and  did  a  little  better,  so  that's  the  reason  we 
added  that  slogan,  clean-up  and  paint-up.  The  whole  truth  of  the  mat- 
ter goes  away  back  to  the  introduction  of  the  tooth  brush  and  the 
white  collar,  which  brought  the  American  people  up  more  than  any- 
thing else.    That  was  a  clean-up  movement  when  we  did  that. 

Mr.  Wolf:  Captain  Conway  turned  every  dump  and  waste  spot 
in  Cincinnati  into  a  beauty  spot.  He  took  places  here  and  there,  dumps, 
and  turned  them  into  flower  gardens. 

Mr.  Hawk,  Moline :  I  wTould  like  to  ask  the  captain  a  question, 
in  regard  to  the  difference  in  fire  losses  in  Europe  and  this  country. 
You  say  they  hold  a  man  responsible  for  a  fire  in  his  property  in  the 
old  country.  We  don't  do  it  here.  Now,  captain,  would  you  suggest 
that  we  start  in  with  our  city  officials  or  state  legislature  and  state 
senators  to  get  a  remedy  for  this.    We  must  have  a  remedy. 

Mr.  Conway  :  We  have  already  got  a  law  if  we  would  attempt  to 
enforce  it,  but  we  have  allowed  that  law  to  become  a  dead  letter  by  re- 
maining silent.  We  ought  to  put  the  burden  of  proof  on  the  man 
who  has  the  fire  as  to  the  origin  of  the  fire  and  prove  he  was  not  re- 
sponsible. 

We  have  a  law  in  Cincinnati  that  will  permit  us  to  tax  the  man 
who  has  a  fire,  if  the  fire  is  caused  from  any  reason  or  from  any  cause 
that  we  have  asked  him  or  served  notice  on  him  to  eliminate  and  we 
have  now  pending  a  case  where  we  charged  a  man  on  Main  street  $600 
for  extinguishing  a  fire.  Those  things  are  helpful  and  if  they  know 
they  have  to  pay  for  the  extinguishment,  where  the  lire  is  brought 
about  by  their  own  carelessness,  in  addition  to  the  taxes  they  are  al- 
ready paying,  that  is  a  good  help. 

You  let  some  fellow  with  no  insurance  get  his  building  burned  by 
the  carelessness  of  his  neighbor  and  see  how  quickly  he  will  sue  his 
neighbor  and  take  damages.  That's  on  the  statute  books  today,  hut  we 
have  not  enforced  it  and  we  have  gone  on  condoling  with  such  a  man 
the  same  as  we  are  condoling  with  the  fellow  running  over  people  with 
his  automobile  in  the  streets  today. 

I  was  talking  with  a  Pennsylvania  safety  man  who  told  me  of  a 
case  where  a  railroad  parallels  the  road   for  three-quarters  of   a  mile. 


179 

There  was  an  automobile  running  along  here  and  the  train  there  ;  about 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  away  the  train  crossed  the  road.  There  were 
63  cars  in  that  train  and  that  damned  fool  ran  into  the  48th  car.  He 
said,  "I  thought  the  train  would  get  by  before  I  got  there."  And  we 
still  allow  that  man  to  drive  an  automobile. 

The  question  you  put,  my  friend,  is  very  proper.  What  you  want 
to  do  is  to  create  a  sentiment  for  the  thing.  Show  the  people  it  is  their 
pockets  that  are  being  picked,  it  is  their  expense  that  is  being  run  up, 
and  in  that  way  you  will  arouse  public  sentiment;  and  with  public  senti- 
ment once  thoroughly  aroused  on  any  subject,  the  end  is  accomplished. 
A  law  that  is  not  popular  with  the  people  can  not  be  enforced.  It  is 
the  same  with  everything  else.  We  have  a  mission.  Our  mission  is  to 
educate  the  public  and  change  their  attitude  of  mind.  Take  those  they 
have  been  condoling  with  and  hold  them  up  before  the  bar  of  public 
opinion  so  they  must  show  they  are  in  no  way  responsible  for  the  fire 
and  the  whole  thing  will  change;  just  like  the  clean-up,  when  two  men 
cleaned  up  they  all  cleaned  up.     (Applause.) 

Chairman  Ely  :  The  next  address  on  the  program  will  be  on  the 
subject  Fire  Alarm  Systems,  by  F.  A.  Raymond,  Consulting  Engineer 
of  the  Gamewell  Alarm  Company,  Newton  Upper  Falls,  Massachu- 
setts. 

FIRE  ALARM  SYSTEMS 

By  F.  A.  Raymond,  Consulting  Engineer,  Gamewell  Alarm  Co., 
Newton  Upper  Falls,  Mass. 

Mr.  Chairman  and  Gentlemen:  The  subject  that  has  been  as- 
signed to  me  is  Modern  Fire  Alarm  Systems.  The  time  allotted  will 
suffice  to  give  you  merely  a  bare  outline  of  modern  fire  alarm  and  watch 
systems,  their  construction,  maintenance  and  operation. 

The  electric  telegraph,  in  various  forms,  has  superseded  largely  all 
other  means  of  transmitting  alarms  of  fire,  especially  for  municipal 
purposes.  To  be  sure,  in  some  small  communities,  notice  of  fire  is  yet 
given  by  shooting  a  gun,  hammering  on  an  old  iron  tire,  by  ringing  a 
bell,  or  blowing  a  whistle. 

A  few  communities  rely  upon  messengers  or  telephones,  notably 
St.  Joseph,  Mo.,  and  Kansas  City,  Kan.,  among  the  larger  of  such 
places;  but,  pretty  generally  throughout  North  America,  and  in  the 
larger  cities  of  most  civilized  countries,  transmission  of  fire  alarms  is 
by  telegraph  circuits  from  boxes  or  stations  on  the  streets  or  in  build- 
ings, either  directly  to  the  fire  stations  or  to  a  fire  alarm  headquarters, 
whence  the  alarms  are  re-transmitted,  either  manually  or  automatically, 
to  the  several  fire  department  stations,  to  bell  towers,  whistle  blowers, 
etc.  At  this  fire  alarm  office  are  received  also  alarms  from  private 
alarm  systems  having  connections  into  the  office,  or  from  the  telephone 
exchanges. 

A  system  of  this  kind,  or  a  modification  thereof,  is  the  only  type 
of  system  recognized  as  reliable  and  satisfactory  by  authorities  gen- 
erally; it  is  the  only  type  considered  by  the  fire  underwriters  as  worthy 
of  recognition  in  entitling  the  municipality  to  the  benefit  of  the  lowest 
rates. 


180 

The  fire  alarm  telegraph  was  one  of  the  earliest  successful  adapta- 
tions of  electricity  to  practical  uses,  coming  shortly  after  Morse's  in- 
vention of  the  electric  telegraph,  and  long  before  the  incandescent  lamp 
or  the  telephone.  As  the  result  of  Morse's  first  long  distance  telegraph 
in  1844,  Messrs.  Channing  and  Farmer  invented  the  lire  alarm  tele- 
graph in  1847  and  the  first  complete  system  was  put  in  service  in  Bos- 
ton in  1852. 

The  Channing  and  Farmer  patents  were  acquired  by  John  N. 
Gamewell ;  the  company  established  by  him  and  its  successors  have 
constructed  ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  municipal  fire  alarm  systems 
in  North  America,  besides  many  in  other  continents. 

The  basic  idea  of  the  Channing-Farmer,  or  Gamewell  system,  is 
that  used  today.  Instead  of  requiring  the  services  of  a  trained  operator 
to  transmit  signals,  as  is  necessary  with  the  Morse  telegraph,  Channing 
and  Farmer  conceived  a  system  whereby  any  person,  no  matter  how- 
stupid  or  inexperienced  or  excited,  could  instantly  and  by  a  simple  ac- 
tion send  definite  information  of  the  outbreak  and  location  of  a  fire. 

The  turning  of  a  break- wheel,  or  code  wheel  in  the  box,  actuated 
by  a  crank,  weight  or  spring,  causes,  through  suitable  break  contacts, 
the  alternate  opening  and  closing  of  an  electric  telegraph  circuit,  thus 
transmitting  over  the  circuit  a  number  predetermined  by  the  teeth  cut 
in  the  break-wheel.  The  opening  or  closing  of  the  circuit  causes  the 
operation  of  suitable  manifesting  and  recording  instruments  located 
in  headquarters,  in  engine  houses  or  bell  towers. 

Ownership  of  systems  for  general  public  protection,  with  boxes 
on  the  streets  and  circuits  running  directly  to  the  public  fire  depart- 
ment, is  practically  always  vested  in  the  municipality. 

The  growth  of  the  modern  factory  system,  the  increase  in  num- 
ber and  extent  of  schools,  hospitals,  correctional  institutions,  depart- 
ment stores,  warehouses  and  terminals,  all  made  it  necessary  to  pro- 
vide additional  devices  to  warn  the  occupants  or  inmates  in  case  of 
fire,  and  at  the  same  time  to  call  the  private  fire  brigade  or  the  munici- 
pal lire  department.  There  is  need  also  for  drilling  employes  or  at- 
tendants to  be  prepared  for  emergencies  and  to  prevent  panic  in  case  of 
actual  fire. 

Tn  recent  years  several  states  have  enacted  laws  requiring  the  in- 
stallation of  interior  fire  alarm  and  drill  systems  in  factories  and  public 
institutions.  These  vary  in  size  and  scope  from  a  simple  local  alarm 
circuit,  with  plain  pull  boxes  and  gongs  to  warn  the  occupants,  to  the 
elaborate  systems  arranged  to  permit  the  drilling  of  occupants  in  any 
section  of  a  building  or  group  of  buildings,  without  disturbing  other 
sections  and  without  any  interference  with  lire  calls  that  may  be  sent 
in  while  a  drill  is  going  on. 

Many  of  these  private  alarm  systems  make  use  of  the  same  high 
grade  alarm  apparatus  used  in  the  municipal  systems,  and  some  of  them 
are  equal  in  extent  and  cost  to  that  of  a  considerable  city.  Such  are 
those  of  the  New  York  Central  railroad  at  Grand  Central  terminal,  the 
Pullman  company  at  Pullman,  Illinois,  the  General  Electric  company  at 
Schenectady,  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation  at  several  plants, 
the   Pennsylvania  railroad  at    various  shops  and   terminals,  and   many 


181 

others.  As  a  good  example,  the  Ford  Motor  company  owns,  maintains 
and  operates,  a  lire  alarm  and  guard  (watch)  system  equal  to  that  of 
the  average  city  of  60,000,  using  the  same  high  grade  apparatus 
throughout. 

Observe  that  I  did  not  mention  colleges  in  the  list  of  institutions 
maintaining  lire  alarm  and  drill  systems.  Unfortunately,  many  of  our 
institutions  of  higher  learning  are  as  yet  in  the  dark  ages  as  regards 
fire  protection.  With  thousands  of  lives  at  risk  in  dormitories  and 
class  rooms,  with  millions  of  dollars  invested  in  buildings  and  contents, 
and  some  of  those  contents  irreplaceable,  few  of  these  institutions  have 
any  fire  alarm  system  worthy  of  the  name  ;  probably  none  have  systems 
as  suitable  and  efficient  as  those  usually  to  be  found  in  our  large  fac- 
tories. 

Occasionally  we  read  of  loss  of  life  from  fire  in  college  dormitor- 
ies ;  a  delayed  alarm  is  usually  the  proximate  or  remote  cause  of  the 
loss,  coupled  with  absence  or  faulty  construction  of  fire  exits. 

Cornell  university  is  one  of  the  largest  and  best  managed  among 
the  eastern  colleges.  In  December,  1906,  they  had  a  fire  in  a  dormitory 
about  -1  a.  m.  No  alarm  system  ;  loss  -$300,000  in  money ;  six  killed 
and  five  injured.  That  would  be  enough  for  ordinary  people,  but  edu- 
cational authorities  are  conservative,  so  they  waited  a  little.  In  Janu- 
ary, 1908,  only  thirteen  months  later,  they  had  another  serious  fire,  but 
only  one  student  was  killed  this  time.  Whereupon  the  college  authori- 
ties decided  it  was  time  to  provide  means  to  call  the  fire  department 
at  least,  and  fire  alarm  boxes  were  installed  in  the  larger  buildings. 

The  list  of  public  school  horrors  is  a  long  and  growing  one  ;  no 
section  is  immune  and  all  are  culpable.  Flimsy  construction,  locked 
doors  or  blocked  exits,  and  no  means  of  calling  the  life  savers,  that  is 
to  say,  the  fire  department.  The  records  of  the  National  Board  of 
Fire  Underwriters  show  an  average  of  five  school  fires  per  day  for 
several  years  previous  to  1921:,  with  an  average  annual  loss  of  six  and 
one-half  millions.  The  records  do  not  tell  us  how  many  were  killed 
and  injured,  but  we  know  it  is  a  sad  list. 

Fire  drills  are  very  well,  if  facilities  are  provided  to  call  the  fire- 
men and  start  the  drill  in  time  to  prevent  panic  and  save  the  children. 
Remember,  they  had  a  most  successful  fire  drill  at  the  Peabody  school 
on  October  27,  1915;  the  next  day  twenty-one  girls  were  burned  to 
death  while  attempting  to  march  out  during  a  real  fire;  a  passerby 
called  the  firemen.    But,  I  have  disgressed  far  from  my  stated  subject. 

With  the  increased  size  of  factories,  schools  and  other  institutions 
needing  special  protection,  there  developed  a  practical  need  for  reliable 
means  of  operating  the  street  box  from  inside,  without  going  out  ; 
something  in  the  nature  of  a  long  arm  that  could  in  effect  reach  from 
the  place  of  the  fire  out  to  the  street  corner,  so  that  attendants  or 
teachers  or  nurses  could  send  an  alarm  without  leaving  panic-stricken 
or  helpless  inmates  to  be  overcome  by  smoke  or  flame. 

This  need  was  first  met  by  an  auxiliary  lire  alarm  system  in  1885. 
Later  improvements  have  made  practical  what  is  called  the  "shunt 
type"  auxiliary  service,  which  employs  a  circuit  running  through  the 
building  and  deriving  its  energy   from  the  main   line,   without   making 


182 

the  operability  of  the  main  line  dependent  upon  it.  The  inside  circuit 
is  controlled  by  closed  switch  boxes  of  a  simple  type,  operable  in  a  man- 
ner corresponding  to  that  employed  for  sending  alarms  from  street 
boxes.  The  operation  of  any  one  of  these  switch  boxes  will  cause 
the  operation  of  a  master  box  to  send  an  alarm  over  the  main  circuit 
and  in  turn,  to  disconnect  the  inside  circuit  from  the  main  line.  Other 
features  may  be  combined  with  these  auxiliary  systems  so  that  local 
gongs  may  be  sounded  to  warn  the  occupants  in  case  of  fire,  and  selec- 
tive devices  may  be  used  so  that  an  accidental  break  in  the  inside  cir- 
cuit will  not  cause  the  operation  of  the  master  box.  The  latter  arrange- 
ment has  met  with  specific  approval  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters. 

Another  class  of  systems  includes  those  owned  and  maintained 
by  service  companies  under  lease.  Most  of  these  companies  first  in- 
stalled messenger  call  service  in  subscribers'  premises,  and  have  gradu- 
ally added  to  their  activities  the  furnishing  of  burglar  alarm,  sprink- 
ler alarm,  watchmen's  supervisory  and  fire  alarm  services.  In  some 
cases,  the  fire  alarm  boxes  used  are  of  the  auxiliary  type,  which  oper- 
ate master  boxes  connected  directly  to  the  municipal  fire  alarm  cir- 
cuits, or  to  the  circuits  of  the  service  company.  In  other  cases  the  fire 
alarm  boxes  are  of  a  cheap  design  developed  from  the  messenger  call 
box,  and  connected  to  the  circuits  of  the  service  company,  from  whose 
office  the  fire  alarms  must  be  re-transmitted  to  the  municipal  fire  alarm 
office ;  this  re-transmission  incurs  an  extra  delay  in  getting  the  alarm  to 
the  fire  department.  Evidently  such  services  duplicate  the  municipal 
system  to  an  extent. 

Sprinkler  leakage  and  supervisory  systems  are  operated  in  con- 
junction with  some  of  these  service  stations.  Other  forms  of  service 
include  automatic  or  thermostatic  circuits,  so  arranged  that  the  expan- 
sion of  metals  due  to  heat  from  a  fire,  or  the  expansion  of  air  or 
volatile  liquid  in  a  tube  or  closed  container,  will  either  close  or  open 
an  electrical  circuit,  and  thus  sound  an  alarm  at  the  service  station. 

The  watch  service  just  referred  to  ordinarily  consists  of  boxes  or 
transmitters  connected  on  circuits  leading  to  a  service  station  where 
signals  are  received  on  tape  registers,  at  which  routine  signals  should 
be  checked  and  recorded  and  from  which  fire  calls  should  be  forward- 
ed to  the  fire  department.  Such  boxes  are  supposed  to  be  so  located 
as  to  compel  the  watchman  to  patrol  the  premises  at  predetermined 
intervals  (usually  hourly)  and  by  a  selected  route.  Because  of  the 
expense  incident  to  the  installation  and  operation  of  such  systems,  their 
use  has  been  limited  to  the  larger  cities;  in  Illinois,  for  example.  1 
understand  that  only  six  cities  have  such  service. 

Obviously,  thousands  of  factories,  stores  and  institutions  are  out- 
side of  the  territory  served  by  such  companies. 

Where  the  municipal  lire  alarm  is  inadequate,  as  is  all  too  often 
the  case,  the  telephone  is  resorted  to  as  the  only  ready  connection  to 
fire  headquarters.  I  low  inadequate  this  may  be  in  case  of  a  fire  dis- 
covered by  a  passerby,  and  especially  when  the  factor)-  or  other  prop- 
erty is  not  in  operations,  it  is  needless  to  explain.  In  the  case  of  the 
ordinary  industry,  operating  forty-eight  hours  per  week,  less  holidays, 


183 

for  seventy-two  per  cent  of  the  time  the  telephone  is  unlikely  to  be 
available  to  an  outsider  who  discovers  a  fire.  If  a  house  burns  down, 
one  or  two  families  only  are  ordinarily  affected  ;  but  if  a  factory  burns. 
on  which  a  large  part  of  the  town's  people  depend  for  a  living,  the 
whole  town  may  be  ruined. 

Obviously  the  fire  department  must  act  on  all  alarms,  from  what- 
ever source  received  ;  but  as  a  means  of  transmitting  fire  alarms,  the 
telephone  has  proven  highly  unsatisfactory.  Every  fire  chief  can  tell 
of  many  instances  where  dependence  on  the  telephone  has  caused  delay 
in  receipt  of  alarms,  of  confusion  in  answering  them. 

Few  persons  can  correctly  or  intelligibly  transmit  a  fire  alarm  over 
the  telephone,  under  the  influence  of  the  excitement  caused  by  the  fire, 
especially  when  the  fire  is  in  the  property  of  the  person  calling.  \\  nere 
the  alarm  is  coming  from  a  person  of  alien  birth,  as  often  happens,  he 
will  in  his  excitement  revert  to  his  ancestral  tongue,  and  then  the 
troubles  of  the  harassed  fire  alarm  operator  become  truly  lamentable. 

The  fire  alarm  telegraph  speaks  a  universal  language ;  it  offers 
readily  understandable  means,  whereby  any  person,  no  matter  how 
ignorant  or  stupid  or  excited,  may  by  one  simple  action  send  in  definite 
and  instantaneous  information  of  the  location  of  a  fire. 

As  the  fire  alarm  telegraph  was  one  of  the  earliest  practical  adap- 
tations of  electricity,  so  it  has  been  one  of  the  best  engineered.  Every 
part  and  device  in  use  today  has  been  designed,  improved  and  re-de- 
signed. Let  us  discuss  briefly  the  device  with  which  the  public  is  most 
familiar,  that  is  the  street  fire  alarm  box,  and  consider  its  evolution. 
The  first  fire  alarm  box  was  merely  a  wooden  box  of  the  still  familiar 
"cottage"  shape.  This  contained  an  ordinary  Morse  telegraph  key. 
with  a  notched  wheel,  whose  teeth,  when  the  wheel  was  rotated,  would 
open  and  close  the  circuit  by  depressing  the  key  and  permitting  it  to 
snap  back  ;  the  wheel  was  operated  by  a  rotating  shaft  with  a  crank 
handle.  The  instructions  on  the  inside  of  door  were:  ''Turn  the 
handle  six  times  slowly/' 

It  was  soon  found  that  some  users  would  turn  the  handle  so  fast 
that  no  intelligible  signal  would  result,  while  others  would  turn  it  so 
slowly  or  irregularly  that  a  similar  result  would  ensue.  A  reducing 
gear  was  then  added,  and  instructions  were  changed  to  "Turn  the 
handle  twenty-five  times  slowly,"  but  with  little  better  result.  Then 
a  clockwork  mechanism  was  designed  for  rotating  the  notched  wheel 
at  a  uniform  speed,  whether  the  handle  was  pulled  slowly  or  jerked, 
or  if  it  was  held  after  pulling.  Then  trouble  arose  from  persons  at- 
tempting to  send  in  alarms  concurrently.  This  caused  a  confusion  of 
signals  urmed  "interference."  The  confused  signals  failed  to  guide 
the  firemen  to  the  fire,  or  sent  them  to  the  wrong  locality,  so  that 
they  were  not  available  when  a  correct  alarm  was  received  later.  It 
required  eleven  years  of  study  and  experiment  by  inventors  and  mech- 
anicians to  overcome  the  difficulty  of  interference. 

Shortly  after  the  advent  of  the  non-interference  box.  cases  were 
noted  where  different  boxes  were  pulled  concurrently,  (that  i>  together 
or  nearly  so)  for  different  fires.  The  non-interference  boxes  pre- 
vented interference  of  one  signal  with  the  other,  but  caused  the  loss 


184 

one  alarm.  Then  followed  another  long  period  of  experiment,  inven- 
tion and  test.  Many  difficulties  were  overcome,  and  we  now  have  the 
"positive  non-interfering  succession  box." 

The  original  fire  alarm  invention  contemplated  that  ordinarily 
there  would  be  a  manually  operated  office,  to  which  alarms  would  go, 
and  where  trained  men  would  send  them  out  to  the  engine  houses, 
pumping  stations,  etc.  It  quickly  developed  that  the  cost  of  such  at- 
tendance would  be  prohibitive  in  a  small  community,  and  the  general 
practice  in  these  places  became  that  of  placing  the  engine  house  ap- 
paratus directly  on  the  box  circuits. 

With  the  extension  of  these  systems  arose  the  difficulty  of  inter- 
ference between  signals  from  different  circuits.  The  invention  of  the 
automatic  repeater,  to  whose  perfection  many  inventors  lent  their  aid, 
has  taken  care  of  this  difficulty.  In  connection  with  the  non-interfer- 
ing and  succession  box,  this  invention  made  it  possible  to  operate  a 
relatively  large  fire  alarm  system  without  having  operators  on  duty. 

There  is  little  time  to  discuss  the  various  kinds  of  engine  house 
alarm  apparatus.  It  is  sufficient  to  state  that  the  recognized  standard 
required  that  in  large  communities  there  shall  be  two  circuits  from  fire 
alarm  central  extending  into  each  station.  Each  of  these  circuits  must 
have  signal  manifesting  devices,  including  a  gong  or  tapper  on  each 
one,  with  a  tape  register  transferable  to  either  ;  additional  devices  are 
often  connected. 

Some  of  the  fire  station  alarm  devices  accomplish  rather  ingenious 
results.  At  one  station  I  have  visited,  this  was  carried  so  far  that  at 
the  first  stroke  of  an  alarm  signal,  the  bedclothes  were  snatched  off  the 
firemen ;  the  lights  were  turned  on ;  the  pole-hole  covers  were  drawn 
up;  a  trap  door  was  opened  over  the  driver's  seat;  the  horses,  already 
bridled,  were  released  from  their  stalls  and  driven  by  a  blow  from  a 
whip  to  run  in  front  of  the  hose  wagon,  where  their  traces  were  auto- 
matically hooked  to  the  whiffle-trees  ;  and  the  doors  were  opened.  By 
the  time  the  driver  could  drop  through  the  trap-door  to  his  seat  below, 
the  horses  were  ready  to  run.  This  company  claimed  the  world's  rec- 
ord time  for  getting  out  of  the  station. 

Street  boxes  at  first  were  of  the  locked  and  detached  key  type, 
and  keys  were  distributed  to  nearby  houses  and  were  carried  by  police- 
men, firemen  and  other  responsible  citizens.  There  was  trouble  be- 
cause a  family  living  near  the  box  and  holding  the  key  would  be  absent 
when  a  tire  occurred,  or  would  mislay  the  key,  or  would  move  away 
and  take  it  with  them;  or  some  irresponsible  person  would  remove  it. 
Many  methods  were  tried  in  the  attempt  to  overcome  this  difficulty. 
give  the  public  prompt  access  to  the  boxes,  and  keep  down  false 
alarms, — keys  trapped  in  the  lock  ;  door  opening  keys  or  handles  cov- 
ered by  a  glass  guard;  keyless  doors  with  lever  handles  and  a  local 
gong  to  warn  passers-by  that  the  box  is  being  operated;  a  glass  panel 
over  the  pull  hook.  Finally  there  was  evolved  the  quick-action  door. 
(Demonstrate.)  The  pull-hook  is  visible  behind  a  hinged  weather 
shield,  which  can  be  instantly  dropped  to  gain  access  to  the  hook.  The 
public  docs  not  need  to  get  inside  the  box.  thus  removing  one  cause  of 
dirt  and  water  getting  to  the  mechanism. 


185 

Fire  alarm  boxes  and  circuits  are  necessarily  seriously  exposed 
to  damage,  from  both  man  and  nature.  The  weather-proof  metal 
outer  box  with  locked  door,  and  the  inner  case  with  glass  cover  takes 
care  of  most  of  the  box  troubles  due  to  exposure,  but  there  remain  lia- 
bility to  damage  from  storms  and  lightning,  and  from  crossing  of  lire 
alarm  wires  with  wires  of  other  electrical  systems. 

The  modern  types  of  lightning  arresters  take  care  of  the  lightning 
hazard  very  effectively;  these  include  the  multiple  discharge  gap,  the 
carbon  block,  and  the  vacuum  or  gas-filled  tube  spark  gap  types. 

In  the  early  boxes  little  attention  was  given  to  questions  of  in- 
sulation, but  with  the  advent  of  lighting  and  power  circuits  it  became 
evident  that  boxes  must  maintain  a  high  degree  of  insulation  of  the  cur- 
rent carrying  part's  from  the  mechanism  and  case.     (Demonstrate.) 

The  early  fire  alarm  circuits  were  built  of  bare  iron  wire  fastened 
to  poles  or  to  any  convenient  tree  or  building.  Rust  and  corrosion 
eventually  brought  into  use  hard  drawn  copper  or  copper  clad  steel 
wires,  insulated  with  two  or  three  braids  impregnated  with  a  weather- 
proof compound.  The  increasing  number  of  wires  on  the  streets  grad- 
ually brought  about  the  joint  use  of  pole  lines  for  all  classes  of  wires. 
It  is  customary  to  place  the  fire  alarm  wires  below  the  electric  light  cir- 
cuits, since  these  are  stronger  and  less  liable  to  fall :  the  telephone  lines 
are  placed  lowest,  since  these  are  lighter  and  more  subject  to  breaks. 

Increasing  congestion  of  wires  in  the  thickly  settled  portions  of 
our  cities  finally  compelled  the  telephone  lines  to  use  serial  cables,  or 
to  go  underground  in  cable  subways.  They  are  being  followed  slowly 
by  the  telegraph,  lighting  and  municipal  wires.  Cities,  in  franchises, 
have  generally  insisted  on  segregation  of  signal  wires  in  separate  duct 
systems  from  power  wires,  and  have  reserved  one  or  two  ducts  for  mu- 
nicipal purposes  ;  it  appears  that  a  single  duct  is  often  insufficient  for 
municipal  purposes,  except  in  outlying  streets. 

After  long  experiment,  the  fire  alarm  profession  has  come  gener- 
ally to  the  conclusion  that,  for  reliability  and  durability,  cable  conduc- 
tors must  be  of  copper  wire,  insulated  with  a  high  grade  rubber  com- 
pound, and  enclosed  in  lead  sheath.  This  type  of  cable  is  called  for  by 
the  Underwriters,  and  the  International  Association  of  Municipal  Elec- 
tricians has  adopted  specifications  for  both  underground  and  aerial 
cables  which  are  accepted  as  standard. 

The  specifications  merely  provide  good  cable;  stress  must  be 
placed  on  proper  installation,  for  much  good  cable  has  been  damaged 
by  careless  handling.  Where  the  municipal  construction  force  does 
not  include  capable  cablemen,  it  is  customary  to  have  the  cable  manu- 
facturer or  the  telephone  company  install  the  municipal  cables. 

For  many  years  the  operating  current  for  lire  alarm  systems  was 
obtained  from  primary  batteries.  At  first  these  were  of  bluestone 
gravity  type;  later  the  caustic  soda  or  Edison  primary  batteries  were 
used;  the  latter  were  expensive  to  renew,  and  the  bluestone  cells  were 
sloppy  and  difficult  to  insulate.  About  L895  the  lead  plate  storage  bat- 
tery was  adapted  to  lire  alarm  use;  the  first  crude  charging  boards 
were  greatly  improved,  especially  by  engineers  of  the  Gamewell  com- 


186 

pany.  and  today  nearly  all  municipal  fire  alarm  systems  are  operated 
by  storage  batteries  in  duplicate. 

The  ( ramewell  company  has  been  mentioned  frequently,  since  it 
was  the  original  and  still  is  by  far  the  largest  company  in  the  fire 
alarm  field.  No  description  of  the  art  could  omit  reference  to  the 
Gamewell  company  or  its  engineers  and  inventors.  Numerous  rivals 
have  arisen  at  various  times  to  dispute  its  lead ;  all  but  the  most  recent 
of  these  have  eventually  fallen  by  the  wayside.  Of  all  the  1,600  odd 
municipal  systems  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  ninety-five  per  cent 
are  Gamewell  and  the  remainder  use  generally  some  Gamewell  ap- 
paratus. One  thinks  of  Gamewell  in  connection  with  fire  alarms  as 
naturally  as  of  Bell  in  connection  with  telephones,  Morse  with  tele- 
graphs or  Edison  with  electric  lamps. 

Use  of  Telephone — Concerning  the  use  of  the  telephone  the  Na- 
tional Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  has  summed  up  the  situation  in  the 
following  statement,  probably  better  than  anything  the  speaker  could 
compose : 

"The  prime  requisites  of  a  fire  alarm  system  are  accessibility, 
speed  of  transmission  and  reliability,  all  of  which  are  lacking  in 
the  telephone  system  .  .  .  The  handling  of  fire  alarms  are  duties 
which  pertain  strictly  to  the  municipal  fire  department,  and  the 
delegation  of  these  duties  to  private  or  disinterested  parties  is 
fundamentally  wrong.  The  waste  of  time  incident  to  the  repeti- 
tition  and  rehandling  of  alarms,  the  lack  of  recording  apparatus 
and  of  notification  to  call  men  or  volunteer  members  of  definite 
locations,  the  lack  of  ready  means  of  calling  additional  men  or  ap- 
paratus, and  the  danger  of  incorrect  locations  being  given  or  re- 
ceived, are  all  features  causing  serious  delays  in  response  and  in 
extinguishment  of  fires  in  the  incipient  stage,  and  may  at  any  time 
be  the  immediate  cause  of  a  conflagration. " 

Numberless  cases  could  be  cited  where  serious  losses,  as  indicated 
in  the  National  Board  statement,  have  been  incurred,  because  of  de- 
pendence on  the  telephone.  I  will  refer  only  to  one  recent  example, 
the  Kansas  City  Automobile  Show  fire  of  February  13,  1925.  The  Un- 
derwriters' report  on  that  fire  says :  "The  watchman  claims  to  have 
turned  in  an  alarm  by  telephone  at  11 :45  p.  m.  by  his  watch  ;  he  claims 

the  fire  department  did  not  arrive  until  12:12  a.  m V  passerby 

gave  the  alarm  verbally  to  Flose  Company  16,  three  and  one-half  bl< 
distant,  at  1  1  :58  .    .    .  The  efforts  of  the  fire  department  were  of  little 
avail,  due  to  the  great  delay  in  receiving  the  alarm.  .    .    .*' 

The  National  Fire  Protection  association,  in  conjunction  with  the 
engineers  of  the  American  Telephone  and  Telegraph  company  has 
worked  out  an  arrangement  which  aims  to  reduce  so  far  as  possible 
the  delays  and  errors  incident  to  the  handling  of  telephoned  alarms. 
This  arrangement  is  fully  explained  in  the  National  Fire  Protection  as- 
sociation Regulations  for  Municipal  Fire  Alarm  Systems,  which  may 
be  obtained  by  anyone,  free  on  request.  The  regulations  are  the  stand- 
ard for  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  and  close  adherence 
to  them  will  assure  the  lire  department  of  the  best  grading  for  this 
feature  of  the  lire  alarm  service. 


187 

Until  recent  years  there  were  no  written  standards  for  fire  alarm 
systems.  When  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  took  up  the 
inspection  and  testing  of  municipal  lire  alarm  systems  in  11)01,  the 
need  became  evident  of  a  standard  to  which  inspectors,  city  official-, 
manufacturers  or  others  could  refer  when  new  or  improved  systems 
were  under  consideration. 

In  1908  the  National  Fire  Protection  association  produced  these 
rules,  now  known  in  the  trade  as  the  Red  Book.  They  are  revised 
from  time  to  time  ;  the  latest  revision  was  this  year. 

Corresponding  rules  for  other  protective  signaling  systems  affect- 
ing the  fire  hazard  have  also  been  issued  and  are  printed  in  the  Green 
Book,  also  revised  this  year.  These  systems  include:  Central  station 
service,  auxiliary  and  private  alarm  systems,  sprinkler  supervisory 
service,  automatic  alarms  and  watchmen's  time-recording  apparatus. 

All  authorities  emphasize  the  necessity  for  suitable  maintenance 
and  frequent  tests  of  fire  alarm  apparatus,  to  insure  the  prompt  and 
reliable  transmission  of  alarms.  The  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers -ays:  "No  system  is  sufficiently  automatic  or  durable  to  do 
away  with  the  necessity  for  periodical  inspections  and  working  tests 
of  all  its  parts.''     Approved  methods  are  set  forth  in  the  Red  Book. 

The  keeping  of  complete  records  is  a  safeguard  to  responsible  of- 
ficials. I  could  give  you  some  interesting  anecdotes  along  that  line, 
but  time  presses. 

The  subject  of  tests  and  records  has  been  well  cared  for  by  the 
inspection  bureaus,  but  they  have  done  little  to  furnish  operating  offi- 
cials with  information  necessary  for  the  fundamentals  of  care  and 
maintenance.  Practically  all  that  has  been  done  along  this  line  has  been 
done  by  the  Gamewell  company,  which  has  issued  several  pamphlets 
on  the  proper  care  and  maintenance  of  apparatus,  for  fire  alarm  and 
police  signaling  systems.  Fire  alarm  officials  may  secure  copies  of 
these,  free  upon  request. 

Observe  that  the  improvements  in  devices,  materials  and  methods, 
of  which  I  have  given  a  brief  account,  were  mainly  directed  along  the 
lines  of  increasing  the  reliability  and  speed  of  alarms. 

To  secure  these  feature-  much  thought,  invention,  experience  and 
care  were  necessary.  Notice  how  the  successive  improvements  in  boxes 
aimed  toward  this  end;  note  the  gradually  improved  methods  of  giving 
access  to  the  box  starting  device,  until  we  have  now  the  quick-action 
door,  whose  very  appearance  instructs  the  passerby  how  to  operate  it 
and  start  an  alarm.  Notice  the  efforts  to  provide  reliability  and  con- 
tinuity of  service. — better  insulating  materials  and  construction  in 
boxes,  in  office  apparatus,  in  wires  and  cables. 

This  has  paralleled  the  speeding  up  and  improvement  of  our  fire 
departments.  When  the  lire  alarm  telegraph  was  invented,  lire  de- 
partments were  composed  of  volunteers  and  apparatus  was  hand- 
drawn;  then  came  horse-drawn  apparatus  and  paid  drivers;  then 
the  steam  lire  engine  and  full-paid  lire  companies;  finally  came  the 
automobile  and  motorized  lire  departments.  Successive  improvements 
and  standardization  of  lire  apparatus  all  tended  to  improve  reliability 
and  quicken  the  operations  of  the  firemen.     Certainly  our  American 


188 

inventors  and  manufacturers  have  clone  well  their  part  toward  the 
improvement  of  methods  and  means  for  righting  fire. 

Soon  after  the  introduction  of  the  fire  alarm  telegraph,  came  the 
adaptation  of  the  telegraph  to  police  and  other  municipal  signaling. 
At  first,  these  used  simple  closed  telegraph  circuits  and  apparatus 
similar  to  the  fire  alarm.  Various  features  were  added,  as  time  demon- 
strated the  need  of  them.  The  telephone  was  found  especially  useful, 
and  soon  after  the  expiration  of  the  original  patents,  combination  in- 
struments were  available. 

The  police  signal  system  has  gradually  grown  away  from  the  fire 
alarm,  influenced  by  its  own  peculiar  needs  and  restrictions.  The 
great  increase  in  street  congestion  and  accidents,  riots  and  other 
troubles,  the  hold-up,  the  automobile  thief  and  the  bootlegger,  all  ac- 
centuate the  need  of  special  means  for  quick  communication  between 
the  patrolman  on  beat,  the  officer  on  his  rounds,  and  headquarters. 
Dependence  on  private  telephones  is  hopeless ;  many  sections,  often 
those  where  disturbances  are  most  frequent,  are  poorly  provided  with 
telephones  ;  as  with  the  firm  alarm,  at  night  and  in  many  locations  it 
Is  impossible  to  get  access  to  a  telephone.  Besides,  there  is  no  way 
for  headquarters  to  call  the  patrolmen,  to  concentrate  men  quickly 
in  emergency,  or  to  put  patrolmen  on  the  watch  for  criminals  escaping 
from  the  scene  of  the  crime. 

Thus  the  modern  police  signal  system,  with  its  associated  bells 
and  flashlights  to  call  the  policemen,  and  with  auxiliary  call  boxes  in 
banks  and  other  places  where  valuables  are  kept  and  where  hold-ups 
may  be  anticipated,  has  become  a  highly  necessary  feature  of  modern 
police  departments.  As  an  auxiliary  to  the  fire  alarm  system,  the 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  deems  an  effective  police  signal 
system  worthy  of  special  allowance  in  its  gradings  of  cities  with  re- 
gard to  their  fire  defenses. 

After  the  Augusta  conflagration,  it  was  not  difficult  to  persuade 
the  citizens  of  Augusta  that  wooden  shingle  roofs  were  too  dangerous 
to  be  permitted.  After  the  Baltimore  fire,  it  was  easy  to  convince 
Baltimore  that  a  modern  drilled  fire  department  is  a  necessity.  After 
the  San  Francisco  fire,  it  was  not  hard  to  get  the  people  of  San  Fran- 
cisco to  demand  reliable  and  adequate  waterworks. 

Now,  all  of  these  things  could  have  been  provided  before  those 
catastrophies,  and  the  people  of  those  cities  had  fair  warning  what  to 
expect.  The  underwriters  especially,  having  large  interests  at  stake, 
had  urged  in  all  those  cities  measures  which  would  have  averted  such 
disasters.  Yet,  many  of  our  cities  are  blind  or  indifferent  to  what  is 
going  on  about  them.  With  ever  increasing  congestion  of  buildings 
and  contents;  with  ever  increasing  hazards  of  materials  and  manufac- 
turing operations;  with  ever  increasing  fires  and  losses;  they  refuse  to 
profit  by  the  experiences  of  their  sister  cities,  or  to  lock  the  door  before 
the  horse  is  stolen. 

No  matter  how  much  we  strive  for  fire  prevention,  it  is  inevitable, 
with  our  modern  town  and  city  life,  that  there  will  he  the  many  hazards 
incident  to  that  life  and  the  consequent  tires.  We  must,  therefore, 
provide  suitable  and  adequate  means  for  combatting  the  fires  that  will 


189 

occur.     These  means  are  chiefly  three — waterworks,  lire  departments 
and  fire  alarm  systems. 

The  waterworks  alone,  no  matter  how  adequate  and  reliable,  would 
be  of  little  value  without  the  tire  department  and  its  apparatus  to  make 
effective  use  of  the  water;  both  waterworks  and  lire  department  to- 
gether would  be  quite  inadequate  to  extinguish  tires  in  their  early  stages 
and  thus  prevent  a  conflagration  or  to  rescue  endangered  persons  be- 
fore it  is  too  late,  without  speedy  and  reliable  means  for  notification 
of  the  outbreak  and  location  of  the  fire.  And  that  is  just  what  the 
fire  alarm  system  provides  ;  it  is  the  nerve  system  of  the  fire  depart- 
ment ;  it  is  the  starting  gun,  which  sets  in  motion  all  the  means  that 
science  and  skill  have  devised  to  protect  our  modern  civilization  against 
its  great  enemy,  FIRE. 

DISCUSSION 

Now,  do  any  of  you  care  to  examine  the  box  I  have  here,  which 
is  one  of  the  very  latest  type  of  boxes.  It  is  too  far  away  for  most 
of  you  to  see  clearly.  You  might  come  up  and  play  with  it  to  your 
heart's  content.  For  those  who  are  not  entirely  familiar  with  the  suc- 
cession box,  I  might  say  the  principle  of  succession  is,  in  case  the  box 
is  pulled  and  another  box  on  the  line  is  operating  already,  the  succes- 
sion box  will  wait  and  bring  in  the  signal  later.  I  will  pull  this  box. 
(Pulls  box.)  If  another  box  is  operating  immediately  the  armature 
of  the  non-interference  magnet  drops  out  and  the  box  runs  idle  for 
a  time  until  the  box  already  pulled  somewhere  finished  the  signal ; 
when  that  is  finished  this  box  will  start  and  send  in  its  signal.  This 
is  a  fifteen  round  box.  If  the  circuit  is  open  when  the  box  is  pulled 
it  will  run  fifteen  rounds  waiting  for  the  chance  to  come  in  and  when 
it  does  come  in  it  will  give  four  rounds  of  the  alarm  and  it  will  come 
in  any  of  those  fifteen  rounds,  so  we  have  fifteen  chances  to  get  your 
alarm  in.  Some  of  the  boxes  use  a  bell  instead  of  a  sounder.  The 
circuit  breakers,  you  can  see,  are  moving  with  a  cog  wheel.  The 
older  types  of  poles  have  been  found  troublesome  in  many  ways.  In 
Boston  recently  we  had  a  fire  in  a  hospital.  One  of  the  nurses  went 
out  and  pulled  the  street  box,  as  she  supposed.  They  have  the  so- 
called  keyless  doors  with  the  handle.  There  is  a  gong  in  the  door,  the 
nurse  heard  the  gong  and  thought  that  was  the  alarm.  She  stood  there 
and  by  and  by  a  passerby  came  along.  By  that  time  the  lire  was  shoot- 
ing out  of  every  window  in  the  hospital.  The  nurse  said,  "Why  don't 
the  fire  department  come?"  The  man  says,  "Did  you  pull  the  hook?" 
She  said,  "I  opened  the  door."  The  result  was  that  one  person 
suffocated  by  smoke  and  several  were  injured. 

Mr.  Wolf:     Has  that  the  connection  for  the  telephone  too? 

Mr.  Raymond:  This  hasn't  the  telephone  jack,  we  put  them  in 
on  request.     That  is  getting  to  be  quite  common. 

Mr.  Jaeckel,  Pekin:  We  have  the  old  Gardner  box  put  in  in 
1892.  That  box  is  built  so  when  you  pull  your  hook  it  has  a  plug 
coming  out  here  and  here  and  two  plugs  on  the  outer  door.  You 
have  to  pull  the  door  open  and  pull  the  inside.      If  the  second  box  is 


190 

pulled  this  box  would  not  come  in.  The  greatest  thing  is  to  educate 
the  people  that  they  must  close  this  outer  door  before  it  can  be  pulled. 

Mr.  Raymond:  Another  trouble  where  they  put  the  key  in  the 
door,  the  boys  go  along  and  break  the  glass  and  let  the  key  drop  down 
and  it  will  not  shut  the  door. 

I  used  to  live  in  Newark,  where  doors  had  the  keys  in  the  lock. 
Many  a  time  I  went  along  and  slammed  the  door  shut.  Newark  had 
the  Gardner  boxes.  If  the  circuit  opened  anywhere  when  the  door 
was  open  that  meant  that  box  was  out  of  business  and  anybody  pulling 
it  for  a  fire  would  get  no  signal  unless  they  knew  the  door  had  to  be 
shut  first  and  opened  again.  In  the  olden  days  the  keys  were  dis- 
tributed around  the  houses.  That  was  very  well  but  there  was  too 
much  delay. 

Twenty  years  ago  I  was  at  Atlanta  looking  over  the  fire  system 
there  and  Chief  Joiner,  later  fire  marshal,  said,  "Come  to  court;  I  have 
a  funny  case."  We  went  over.  A  negro  was  arrested  for  smash- 
ing fire  alarm  boxes.  He  said,  "Judge,  my  house  was  afire,  I  could 
not  arouse  anybody  and  get  a  key  so  I  broke  the  door  in."  The  judge 
said,  "How  about  it,  Mr.  Chief?"  The  chief  said,  "I  don't  blame  him, 
I  would  have  done  the  same  thing." 

We  think  anything  that  gives  the  public  quick  access  to  the  box 
and  at  the  same  time  does  not  leave  the  box  exposed  to  dirt,  water, 
ice  and  snow  getting  into  it  is  the  thing  to  use.  We  finally  got  to  keep- 
ing the  door  locked.  The  firemen  have  keys,  they  can  get  into  the 
Morse  key  and  the  telephone  jack;  they  know  what  they  are  and  that's 
all  right. 

Mr.  Wolf:  We  have  been  for  years  carrying  on  a  campaign  of 
education  in  the  operation  of  the  boxes  and  we  had  mounted  on  trucks 
boxes  we  could  take  to  schools  and  public  meetings  where  we  could 
educate  the  people. 

Mr.  Raymond:  That  has  been  a  fine  thing  in  a  number  of  places. 
I  remember  in  Camden  the  chief  of  the  electric  bureau  had  an  outfit 
set  up  so  the  school  children  could  see  when  they  pulled  the  box  what 
happened  and  he  found  in  doing  that  that  his  police  department  needed 
a  little  training.  He  discovered  not  less  than  six  of  his  patrolmen  did 
not  know  how  to  pull  fire  engine  boxes. 

Mr.  Wolf:  That's  nothing  unusual ;  you  can  find  that  in  any  city 
today.  In  a  certain  large  city  I  was  called  to  address  the  Rotary  club. 
A  man  told  about  the  work  he  had  done  in  fire  prevention  and  I  asked 
him  if  he  knew  the  nearest  fire  alarm  box  to  his  home.  He  studied  a 
minute  and  said,  no. 

Mr.  Raymond:  I  have  also  had  that  same  thing  come  up  and 
presume  if  I  had  not  spent  sonic  twenty  years  in  the  business  myself 
I  would  not  know  the  nearest  lire  alarm  box  to  my  house  or  what  its 
number  was. 

Mr.  Wolf:  I  will  bet  you  go  to  the  average  city  today  among 
the  Boys  Scouts  and  they  will  tell  you  where  the  nearest  fire  alarm 
boxes  are  to  their  homes  and  how  to  operate  the  boxes. 


19] 


Chairman  Ely:  Any  other  questions  anyone  wants  to  ask?  If 
not,  we  thank  you.      (Applause.) 

We  will  pass  on  to  the  next  subject,  Demonstration  of  First  Aid, 
by  L.  L.  Wolf,  of  the  Cincinnati  Fire  College.  He  does  not  need  much 
of  an  introduction.      (Applause.) 


DEMONSTRATION  OF  FIRST  AID 
By  L.  L.  Wolf,  Cincinnati,  Ohio 

I  would  like  to  have  some  man  volunteer  his  services  who  is  will- 
ing to  have  his  left  leg  cut  off,  his  throat  cut  and  his  right  arm  removed. 
Gentlemen,  first  aid  today  in  industrial  plants,  lire  departments, 
public  service  corporations  and  public  utilities  has  come  to  be  a  very 
important  thing,  but  it  is  still  only  first  aid  and  you  must  remember 
that  we  are  not  doctors  ;  we  are  only  there  to  administer  first  aid  to 
make  the  patient  as  easy  as  we  possibly  can  until  he  can  receive  expert 
medical  attention  and  our  duty  is  to  do  only  what  we  think  best  to 
make  the  patient  comfortable  and  send  him  to  the  hospital  in  the  best 
possible  condition  in  order  to  avoid,  if  possible,  any  future  complica- 
tions that  might  arise  from  neglect. 

One  of  the  most  important  things  under  this  subject  is  stopping 
the  flow  of  blood.     Under  that  heading  we  use  a  tourniquet,  we  use 

digital  pressure  and  we  use  flex- 
ing, all  of  which  I  will  show  you. 
Each  one  has  its  place  in  this 
work.  Every  man  interested  in 
this  work  really  ought  to  make 
a  study  of  it ;  just  a  little  knowl- 
edge of  first  aid  is  really  apt  to 
cause  more  harm  than  if  you  did 
not  know  anything,  because  if 
you  don't  know  anything  you 
would  not  do  anything.  If  you 
have  a  small  knowledge  you  are 
liable  to  do  the  wrong  thing, 
which  would  cause  trouble. 

The  first  thing  I  am  going 
into  is  what  we  call  digital  pres- 
sure. In  case  of  a  severing  of  the  arteries  or  veins  we  have  arterial 
bleeding  and  venous  bleeding.  The  two  can  be  discriminated  and  sepa- 
rated by  the  fact  that  all  arterial  bleeding  is  with  the  beat  of  the  heart. 
Arterial  blood  is  red  and  is  a  fast  pumping  flow.  Many  of  you  have 
been  called  where  a  man  had  severed  his  jugular  vein  and  we  have 
been  called  where  a  man  has  attempted  to  commit  suicide,  slashed  his 
throat  with  a  razor.  If  I  had  a  case  of  the  severing  of  the  jugular 
vein,  the  place  I  would  endeavor  to  stop  that — I  want  you  to  see  this 
and  pay  particular  attention  to  this — is  right  here,  where  the  collar 
bone  forms  to  protect  the  arteries  and  muscles  of  your  neck. 
There  is  a  hollow  space  in  which  you  can  place  your  fingers,  by  taking 
these  two  fingers  in  this  manner  and  pressing  down  in  there,  that  will 


Instructing-  Class  in  Use  of  Tourniquet. 


192 

shut  off  the  flow  of  blood  from  the  jugular  vein.  That  is  known  as 
digital  pressure  and  is  used  by  the  doctors  and  surgeons  the  world  over. 

Suppose  we  have  a  wound  on  the  side  of  the  head.  As  you  know, 
head  bleeding  is  the  hardest  thing  to  get  at,  due  to  the  fact  in  most 
cases  the  arteries  and  veins  come  out  between  muscles  and  bones  where 
they  are  thoroughly  protected.  In  scalp  wounds  that  is  not  the  case. 
If  this  man  had  a  wound  there  is  only  one  way  to  stop  it,  take  this 
finger  that  way  and  that  finger  this  way  and  press  it  until  you  cause 
that  blood  to  coagulate,  then  take  a  pack  or  a  bandage  and  that  will 
stop  the  flow  of  the  blood  until  he  can  get  to  a  hospital  or  a  doctor. 
Never  try  to  wash  the  wound  with  water.  If  you  have  iodine  touch 
it  up,  but  never  take  water,  because  you  do  more  damage  than  good ; 
and  don't  put  too  much  iodine  on.  For  head  and  neck  wounds  and 
arterial  and  venous  bleeding  never  try  to  wash  the  wounds,  because 
nine  out  of  ten  times  you  put  more  dirt  in  the  wound  than  you  take 
out.     So  far  for  digital  pressure. 

We  will  now  go  to  what  is  known  as  tourniquet.  Where  there 
has  been  a  severing  of  the  vein  or  artery  below  the  shoulder  you  have 
excess  bleeding  and  the  man  is  liable  to  bleed  to  death.  If  you  have 
a  wound  below  the  shoulder  taking  in  an  artery  or  vein  and  have  ex- 
cessive bleeding,  take  your  handkerchief  and  make  a  knot — all  arteries 
and  veins  come  out  between  the  muscle  and  bone  where  they  are  best 
protected.  The  arteries  and  veins  come  out  in  this  soft  place  here  and 
branch  out  and  come  up  along  here  and  here  is  the  place  where  you 
are  bleeding ;  take  an  ordinary  handkerchief  around  the  arm  like  that 
(indicating),  tie  a  square  not,  don't  tie  it  tight,  but  place  a  stick  in  it. 
If  you  will  feel  this  man's  hand  now  it  is  warm.  I  will  show  you  how 
long  it  takes  to  shut  off  the  circulation  in  the  arm.  The  veins  are 
swelling  up.  Feel  his  fingers,  they  are  cooling  off.  Now  then,  you 
want  to  remember  this  will  shut  off  the  circulation  and  stop  the  blood, 
but  at  no  time  does  that  want  to  be  applied  and  held  on  longer  than 
fifteen  minutes.  After  you  have  had  it  on  fifteen  minutes  release  it 
again,  let  the  blood  start  to  flow,  but  as  soon  as  the  blood  starts  to 
flow  tie  it  up  again.  By  doing  that  you  will  avoid  a  case  of  gangrene. 
You  will  remember  when  you  shut  off  that  arm  this  blood  congeals  and 
if  you  don't  start  circulation  again  there  will  be  a  case  of  gangrene 
which  nine  times  out  of  ten  means  the  amputation  of  the  member  below 
the  wound.  Loosen  it  up  and  let  that  blood  flow  and  then  tighten  it 
up  again.     Safety  first. 

I  know  of  cases  where  a  tourniquet  was  put  on  and  left  until  they 
got  to  the  hospital  and  ninety  cases  out  of  one  hundred  it  required  the 
amputation  of  the  member  below  the  wound.  It  is  no  trouble  to  put 
on  and  no  trouble  to  take  off. 

We  also  use  the  tourniquet  for  wounds  below  the  trunk.  Sup- 
pose I  have  a  wound  right  here,  in  the  leg  above  the  knee,  and  want 
to  put  on  a  tourniquet.  I  would  put  the  tourniquet  here  in  the  same 
place  under  the  leg  that  I  did  under  the  arm,  where  the  veins  and 
arteries  are  protected  by  the  muscle  and  bone.  Put  that  in  there  and 
put  your  stick  in  there.  You  noticed  in  the  picture  last  night  the 
policeman  took  his  billy  and  used  it  instead  of  a  stick. 


193 

If  the  wound  is  below  the  knee,  a  still  better  way  of  shutting  off 
that  circulation  is  what  is  known  as  flexing.  I  will  show  you  how 
that  is  done.  This  man  has  his  whole  arm  crushed  and  I  want  to 
stop  that  circulation  underneath  there.  I  would  take  any  kind  of  a 
little  ball  or  a  knife  and  stick  it  there  underneath  the  arm,  in  the  arm 
pit,  something  large  that  will  press  in  there  and  bandage  this  arm  on  it. 
This  is  known  as  flexing  and  is  a  very  important  evolution.  If  all  this 
part  of  the  arm  were  mashed  off  here  by  a  train  or  crushed  in  the  col- 
lapse of  a  building,  a  tourniquet  is  not  going  to  do  much  good,  so  take 
anything  that  will  fit  underneath  a  man's  arm  and  bind  the  arm  down. 
That  is  known  as  flexing. 

I  will  show  you  how  that  works  to  an  advantage.  Will  you  lie  on 
the  table  ?  This  is  a  very  important  thing  that  should  be  in  every  first 
ftid  kit;  this  is  known  as  the  triangular  bandage.  It  is  an  easy  thing 
to  use  as  a  bandage  for  men  that  could  not  be  bandaged  with  an 
ordinary  roller  bandage,  therefore  it  is  a  great  advantage.  It  is  very, 
very  easy  to  handle  and  everybody  can  bandage  and  bandage  success- 
fullv  so  it  will  stay  there,  but  when  you  see  the  various  uses  this  can 
be  put  to  you  will  realize  what  a  wonderful  piece  of  goods  it  is.  You 
can  buy  the  muslin  at  the  dry  goods  store  and  cut  them  up  yourself.  If 
you  write  to  the  Life  Saving  Division  of  the  Red  Cross,  at  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  you  can  buy  them  for  eight  cents  and  each  one  contains 
printed  instructions  as  to  their  use  for  each  wound.  If  you  have  a 
local  chapter  of  the  Red  Cross  in  your  city  you  can  go  to  them  and 
get  it. 

In  case  a  man  should  have  his  leg  or  foot  crushed  and  you  want 
to  stop  the  bleeding  and  send  him  to  the  hospital,  in  case  the  leg  is 
crushed,  the  best  way  to  handle  that  is  to  bring  the  leg  up  like  that  and 
put  something  underneath  it.  That  is  what  is  known  as  flexing  for  a 
crushed  bone.  That  will  absolutely  shut  off  all  circulation  of  the  blood 
below  the  knee.  I  will  guarantee  I  can  leave  him  that  way  for  ten  or 
fifteen  minutes  and  it  will  take  fully  twenty-five  minutes  before  he  can 
use  that  foot  again.  That  is  a  very  important  evolution  in  first  aid 
because  you  come  in  contact  with  so  many  accidents  by  railroads,  steam 
roads,  electric  roads,  automobiles,  etc.,  where  the  foot  is  crushed  or  the 
leg  is  mangled  below  the  knee.  That's  the  way  we  shut  off  the  circu- 
lation. 

A  voice :    Do  you  have  to  let  that  out  in  fifteen  minutes,  too  ? 

Mr.  Wolf:  Yes,  sir.  You  always  want  to  get  circulation  of  the 
blood  through  the  wound  every  once  in  awhile.  You  don't  want  to 
allow  the  blood  to  congeal  in  a  severed  part  or  it  will  cause  gangrene. 
After  you  have  got  it  shut  off  you  want  to  start  it  again.  That  applies 
to  all  wounds  below  the  knee. 

Suppose  we  had  a  wound  between  the  knee  and  the  hip.  We  can 
do  that  same  thing  by  taking  a  policeman's  club,  a  broom  or  a  piece  of 
stick  and  placing  the  stick  right  in  here  and  take  two  bandages  to 
go  around  the  body.  You  can  put  two  bandages  together  by  making 
an  ordinary  square  knot.  That's  for  Hexing  where  the  wound  runs 
between  the  hip  and  the  knee.  That  will  absolutely  shut  off  the  blood 
in  there. 


194 

Now  we  have  gone  into  the  flexing,  digital  pressure  and  the  tourni- 
quet and  I  would  like  to  have  yon  ask  some  questions.  Remember  you 
are  all  sent  here  to  learn  something. 

DISCUSSION 

A  voice:  I  would  like  to  ask,  in  case  a  man  had  his  arm  pulled 
out  of  socket,  where  would  you  stop  the  flow? 

Mr.  Wolf:     With  the  arm  torn  away? 

A  voice  :     Yes,  sir. 

Mr.  Wolf:  If  this  man  had  his  shirt  off  I  could  show  you  to 
better  advantage.  (Subject  takes  off  shirt.)  We  will  say  the  arm  was 
torn  out  at  the  socket.  It  would  not  be  any  trouble  for  you  to  take 
your  handkerchief  and  tie  it  in  four  knots.  Remember  your  handker- 
chief is  never  clean.  I  don't  care  whether  it  just  came  from  the  laun- 
dry, it  is  never  clean.  Therefore,  take  your  first  aid  pack,  take  a  piece 
of  gauze  and  wrap  around  your  handkerchief,  place  that  right  in  the 
wound,  bring  this  up  this  way,  take  your  triangular  bandage  and  bring 
it  up  around  the  neck  like  this  (indicating)  and  then  pull,  even  if  you 
hurt  his  neck.  Pull  up  in  there  and  tie  your  bandage,  then  get  the  same 
hold  I  showed  you  for  the  cutting  of  the  jugular  vein. 

A  voice:  The  reason  I  asked  that  question,  I  had  a  dear  friend 
working  in  the  boiler  works  at  one  time  who  took  a  misstep  and 
wrenched  his  arm  out  of  the  socket. 

Mr.  Wolf  :  I  was  in  a  case  in  South  Carolina  in  a  cotton  mill 
where  a  fellow  got  caught  in  a  large  belt  that  runs  a  machine  and  tore 
his  arm  right  out.  We  are  none  of  us  doctors  and  the  best  we  can  do 
is  to  give  our  fellow  man  the  most  relief  and  get  him  comfortable  until 
he  can  get  the  benefit  of  medical  training. 

A  voice :     Where  would  you  place  that  ball? 

Mr.  Wolf  :     Right  up  where  the  arm  was. 

A  voice :     Suppose  it  should  happen  where  we  had  no  first  aid  ? 

Mr.  Wolf:  Do  the  best  you  can  under  the  circumstances:  tear 
up  your  shirt,  take  your  handkerchief  ;  if  your  handkerchief  is  not  so 
clean  you  can  not  help  it.  But  if  it  happens  at  an  industrial  plant  there 
is  no  reason  why  every  industrial  plant  should  not  have  a  first  aid  kit 
handy  and  if  they  don't  they  are  negligent  of  the  people  the)-  employ. 

That  also  should  be  opened  up  if  there  is  any  length  of  time  in  get- 
ting to  the  hospital.  Any  time  yon  have  had  a  wound  and  absolutely 
shut  off  the  flow  of  blood  to  that  wound  too  long,  in  nine  cases  out  of 
ten  gangrene  sets  in  and  you  know  the  danger  of  gangrene. 

Are  there  any  other  questions,  gentlemen,  before  we  go  on  to  other 
subjects?  I  know  you  don't  like  to  listen  to  me  much,  you  get  tired. 
but  those  of  yon  that  want  the  know  ledge  can  ask  the  questions. 

A  voice:     In  case  of  a  stomach  rupture  or  internal  bleeding? 

Mr.  Wolf:  I  want  to  say  to  you  that's  a  case  for  a  doctor:  that 
is  not  a  case  for  first  aid. 

A  voice:  Suppose  it  happens  we  are  not  in  a  position  to  get  the 
doctor  and  are  going  to  send  him   to  the  hospital? 


195 

Mr.  Wolf:  Sit  your  patient  up  in  as  comfortable  a  position  as 
you  can,  don't  let  him  lie  down.  For  instance,  if  you  can  draw  that 
blood  away  by  putting  hot  applications  to  his  feet,  keeping  the  blood  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  body,  you  can  make  him  easier,  but  that  is  really 
a  case  for  the  doctors  and  I  don't  like  to  trespass  on  the  domain  of 
the  doctors  and  I  am  not  going  to  tell  you  to  do  something  that  might 
result  in  injuries.  I  know  several  things  I  could  administer  if  I  had 
the  case,  but  don't  want  to  tell  you  that  because  I  am  not  going  to  be 
arrested  for  malpractice. 

A  voice:    How  would  you  treat  a  bad  cut  below  or  above  the  eye? 

Mr.  Wolf:  By  holding  the  wound  together  until  I  got  a  coagu- 
lation of  the  blood;  then  I  would  bandage  it  and  get  him  to  the  doc- 
tor as  soon  as  I  could. 

Iodine  is  one  of  the  best  things  in  the  world.  I  love  iodine  like 
I  do  beer.  It  is  the  most  wonderful  cleanser  and  can  do  no  damage. 
Suppose  you  are  around  an  industrial  plant  and  a  man  should  get  his 
arm  or  hand  badly  crushed.  You  Avant  to  clean  the  wound  and  if 
you  have  nothing  else  around  don't  be  afraid  to  use  a  little  gasoline  to 
clean  it  off,  because  that's  cleaner  than  any  water  you  can  use.  I  am 
not  advising  you  to  use  gasoline  all  the  time,  but  in  an  emergency  it  will 
be  all  right. 

A  voice:     How  about  turpentine? 

Mr.  Wolf:  Turpentine  is  not  bad,  it  is  not  good.  It  is  not  a 
cleanser  where  gasoline  is. 

A  voice  :     How  about  oil  of  salts? 

Mr.  Wolf:     That  is  a  cleanser  for  burns. 

A  voice:     How  would  oil  of  mustard  be? 

Mr.  Wolf  :     That  would  be  bad. 

A  voice:  Suppose  there  is  grease  on  the  hand  and  gasoline  is 
used,  wouldn't  that  have  a  tendency  to  run  the  grease  in? 

Mil  Wolf:  You  can  wash  it  off.  If  you  have  a  man  working 
around  machinery  and  want  to  clean  that  grease  off,  take  as  clean  a 
piece  of  rag  as  you  can  possibly  get  and  clean  it  off. 

Is  there  anything  else  on  that  subject  before  we  get  off  of  digital 
pressure,  flexing  and  tourniquet.  Any  other  questions  you  want  to 
ask?    Don't  be  bashful,  as  I  am  glad  to  give  you  whatever  I  have  on  it. 

A  voice:  Relative  to  a  severe  burn,  is  any  kind  of  oil  that  is 
handy  all  right  to  use? 

Mr.  Wolf:  Absolutely.  Anything  that  would  exclude  the  air  i-  a 
wonderful  thing,  even  your  crude  oil'.  I  want  to  say  for  the  benefit 
of  the  firemen  and  others  here,  one  of  the  most  wonderful  things 
we  know  of  is  what  is  known  as  carron  oil;  that  is  nothing  but  lin- 
seed oil  and  lime  water.  That  is  the  most  wonderful  thing  for 
burns. 

A    voice:      In    what   proportion? 

Mr.    Wolf:     For  a  gallon   of   linseed   oil   about    a   quart    and   a 
pint  of   lime   water.      Years  ago   I    was   in  the   service  of   the   bureau 
of    mines    in     Pennsylvania    mines    and    we    used    to    keep    that    stuff 
standing  around   in   barrels.       You   know   in   those   days   we  had   lots 
of  explosions  and  did  not  have  the  modern  methods  we  have  today. 


196 

We  had  lots  of  explosions  and  always  kept  this  oil  around  in  bar- 
rels. I  would  advise  anyone  around  a  plant  where  there  is  elec- 
tricity to  carry  a  bottle  of  carron  oil  and  to  the  firemen  I  would 
advise  that  they  carry  011  every  piece  of  apparatus  at  least  a  quart 
of  that  solution.  On  our  apparatus  in  Cincinnati  we  carry  a  gallon 
of  carron  oil.  The  carron  oil, — the  linseed  oil  and  lime  water. — 
has  a  soothing  effect  on  a  wound.  If  you  have  regular  crude  oil 
or  lubricating  oil,  anything  that  will  go  over  the  wound  is  a  won- 
derful protection. 

A  voice:     Is  that   raw  linseed  oil  you  use? 

Mr.   Wolf  :     Yes,  sir. 

A  voice :     Suppose  these  burns  blister  ? 

Mr.  Wolf  :     They  all  blister  afterwards. 

A  voice  :     Not  always. 

Mr.  Wolf:  If  it  is  burned  into  the  under  tissues  it  is  going 
to  blister. 

A  voice:     Break  the  blister  or  leave  it? 

Mr.  Wolf:  The  blisters  will  break  themselves.  If  they  are 
opened  it  should  be  done  with  a  sterilized  needle.  If  you  could  get 
every  man  to  take  a  needle  and  burn  the  end  of  it  with  a  match  he 
can  sterilize  it  himself  and  let  the  water  out  of  it.  I  would  cover  that 
wound  up  and  absolutely  exclude  it  from  the  air  and  take  him  wThere 
he  can  get  medical  attention.  First  aid  is  only  first  aid.  All  it  does 
is  to  make  the  patient  easier  and  get  him  where  he  can  get  real 
medical  attention. 

A  voice :  I  don't  believe  we  heard  you  say  in  what  proportion 
you  divide  the  linseed  oil  and  the  lime  water? 

Mr.  Wolf:  To  a  gallon  of  linseed  oil  you  can  use  one  quart  and 
one  pint  of  lime  water. 

A  voice :     Suppose  you  only  wanted  a  gallon  ? 

Mr.  Wolf  :  I  would  take  two  quarts  of  linseed  oil  and  a  quart 
and  a  pint  of  lime  water.  Are  there  any  other  questions,  gentlemen? 
We  are  going  to  another  subject  in  a  moment. 

A  voice :  Does  that  apply  to  electric  burns  as  well  as  other 
burns  ? 

Mr.  Wolf:  Yes,  sir,  any  burns  should  be  protected  from  the 
atmosphere.  Now,  I  want  to  say  to  you  in  burns  caused  by  acids, 
such  as  sulphuric  or  any  of  the  corrosive  acids,  they  will  destroy  tis- 
sues and  if  you  can  get  alcohol  or  an  extreme  amount  of  water  you 
can  flush  it  off.  One  of  the  best  things  to  use  in  an  acid  burn  is 
alcohol. 

A  voice  :     How  about  soda  ? 

Mr.  Wolf:  Bicarbonate  of  soda  is  good  in  certain  cases  be- 
cause it  is  an  antidote  for  an  acid. 

A  voice:     Bicarbonate  is  all  right  for  sulphuric,  isn't  it? 

Mr.  Wolf:  It  is  not  the  best  for  an  extreme  case,  flush  it  out 
with  water  or  alcohol.     The  same  thing  for  carbolic  acid. 


197 

A  voice  :     Grain  alcohol  ? 

Mr.  Wolf:     Yes,  always  grain  alcohol  for  medical  purposes. 

A  voice:     Is  that  alcohol  wood  alcohol  or  grain  alcohol? 

Mr.  Wolf:  Always  grain  alcohol.  Any  other  questions,  gen- 
tlemen? If  there  are  no  other  questions  we  will  go  into  something 
else.  Suppose  this  man  broke  his  collar  bone,  lie  was  lighting  fire, 
holding  the  hose  and  a  brick  fell  on  him  and  broke  his  collar  bone. 
You  can  fix  that  man  as  good  as  any  doctor  in  the  world  ;  it  is  the 
simplest  thing-  in  the  world.  Take  this  hand,  lay  that  arm  right  up 
there,  the  tip  of  the  fingers  even  with  the  back  of  his  arm,  take  the 
bandage  and  that  is  the  position  to  send  the  man  to  the  hospital. 
When  he  gets  there  all  the  doctor  will  do  is  to  see  that  it  is  bandaged 
permanently.  I  can  bandage  him  permanently,  but  that's  the  position 
to  hold  him  in  to  go  to  the  hospital.  For  a  broken  shoulder  blade 
it  is  very  simple,  it  is  easy,  there  is  nothing  to  it.  If  you  had  a 
shoulder  blade  broken  you  know  the  pain  a  man  goes  through. 

Now  one  of  the  next  things  I  want  to  show  you  is  how  to  put 
a  man's  arm  in  a  sling.  I  will  show  you  where  the  triangular  band- 
age comes  in  very  nicety.  There  are  so  many  uses  for  the  triangular 
bandage  it  would  be  almost  impossible  for  me  to  explain  them  all 
to  you  during  a  very  short  space  of  time.  In  a  head  wound  they 
are  very  handy  for  the  reason  that  they  are  the  easiest  thing  in  the 
world  to  bandage  a  head  with.  You  can  put  it  any  place  on  the  head 
you  want  to  and  hold  it  and  it  makes  a  perfect  head  bandage.  I 
will  guarantee  you  can  not  take  a  rolled  bandage  and  set  it  on  the  head 
like  that,  no  matter  where  the  wound  is  on  the  head.  For  instance, 
you  have  a  jaw  broken  and  you  take  a  rolled  bandage  and  try  to  do 
that  and  see  what  it  means.  It  is  a  lot  of  work.  If  you  gentlemen 
are  desirous  of  knowing  how  that  was  done  I  will  be  glad  to  show 
you.  With  a  broken  ankle  it  is  necessary  to  bandage  the  ankle  and 
bring  it  right  up  this  way. 

You  can  get  these  bandages  at  the  American  Red  Cross  and  on 
each  bandage  is  printed  every  use  that  bandage  can  be  put  to  and  a 
picture  explaining  how  to  use  it,  which  I  think  is  a  very  wonderful 
thing  and  it  is  the  most  convenient  bandage  there  is.  I  have  all  kinds, 
but  this  is  the  most  desirable  bandage  for  bandaging  anything.  Yon 
can  use  it  any  place  you  can  use  a  rolled  bandage  and  it  is  so  much 
easier  to  handle  and  you  don't  have  to  have  the  skill  of  a  doctor 
to  put  on  the  bandage.     Any  other  questions? 

We  are  now  going  into  the  splinting.  There  are  different  kinds 
of  splints.  Man}-  times  in  cases  of  broken  thighs  you  haven't  splints 
and  have  to  make  your  own,  a  broom,  board,  blanket,  pillow,  table  leaf, 
or  shutter;  you  can  use  almost  anything  for  a  splint.  You  fellows 
in  the  hrst  aid  work  in  fire  departments  and  industrial  plants,  1  want 
to  show  something.  This  is  known  as  the  Wolf  splint.  1  made  this 
myself  and  got  it  up  and  hre  departments  all  over  the  country  are 
carrying  them.  I  have  got  one  street  railway  in  Boston  to  include 
it  in  their  first  aid  kit.  Yon  can  make  these  out  of  an  ordinary  piece 
of  canvass  cut  double  and  lapped   and   an  ordinary  stick   that   will   fit 


198 

in  those  slots.  It  makes  the  most  wonderful  splint  in  the  world.  I 
have  these  patented,  but  haven't  them  for  sale  and  any  of  you  fellows 
who  want  to  make  them  are  at  liberty  to  make  as  many  as  you  want 
to.  I  will  show  you  what  a  wonderful  leg  splint  it  makes.  It  is 
shaped  around  the  ankle.  It  is  more  quickly  applied  and  easily 
handled  than  any  splint  you  can  possibly  use.  There  is  a  perfect 
splint.  Doctors  are  using  it  today  for  permanent  splints.  It  is  easily 
made  and  does  not  occupy  any  room  in  your  equipment.  It  is  in- 
expensive. There  is  no  reason  why  everybody  should  not  have  one 
in  their  first  aid  equipment.  You  are  at  liberty  to  make  them  and 
use  all  you  want  to,  but  the  only  thing  I  ask  you  to  do  is  to  not 
make  them  for  sale;  if  you  do  I  will  sue  you  for  damages. 

A  voice :     Are  the  sticks  the  same  length  ? 

Mr.  Wolf:  No,  I  will  show  you  how  it  is  made.  Where  it 
goes  down  to  the  angle  the  first  ones  shorten  up. 

Xow,  I  will  show  you  something  else  you  ought  to  have.  It  is 
easier  for  me  to  tell  you  what  you  ought  to  have  than  it  is  for  you 
to  get  it  on  your  fire  department.  You  ought  to  have  a  body  wrap- 
per. There  is  no  more  gruesome  a  sight  than  lowering  a  burned  body 
or  a  dead  body  out  of  a  building.  I  don't  know  of  anything  more 
gruesome.  We  have  orders  whenever  a  body  is  lowered  from  a 
building  in  our  department  it  must  be  put  in  a  body  wrapper.  Al- 
ways keep  the  arms  inside  so  there  is  no  chance  for  them  to  get 
caught.  Now,  all  you  have  to  do  is  to  fasten  the  rope  on  this  and 
lower  the  man  out.  He  is  not  exposed  to  the  air  or  the  public  gaze. 
Suppose  when  you  get  him  down  you  want  a  stretcher,  well,  three 
fellows  get  hold  of  these  handles  on  each  side  and  you  have  a  stretcher. 
The  man  on  this  end  can  hold  the  head  up.  You  have  a  bag  to 
lower  him  from  the  building,  protect  him  from  the  public  gaze  and  also 
a  stretcher. 

Any  of  you  are  at  liberty  to  make  those  bags.  Here's  a  drawing 
of  the  bag  and  any  of  you  gentlemen  that  would  like  to  have  that 
drawing  can  get  it  by  writing  to  Ahrens  and  Fox.  Cincinnati.  They 
made  up  a  lot  of  them  so  any  of  you  who  would  like  to  have  a  blue 
print  can  get  it  by  writing  to  that  firm.  As  long  as  you  make  them 
for  your  own  use  I  have  no  objection,  but  please  don't  sell  them. 

Anything  else  on  this  first  aid?  I  could  keep  you  here  all  day. 
I  don't  have  to  eat,  so  if  there  is  anything  you  want  to  ask.  go  ahead. 

A  voice :  Last  night  I  noted  in.  the  show  a  man  stepped  on  a 
nail. 

Mr.  Wolf:  Yes,  that  was  iodine  we  put  in  there  first  and  then 
gave  him  an  injection  of  anti-toxin  to  prevent  lockjaw.  Any  more 
questions  before  we  adjourn?  I  have  to  come  before  you  twice  more 
tomorrow  and  you  will  be  so  tired  of  listening  to  me  you  will  wish 
I  was  not  here.  If  there  are  no  other  questions  we  will  go  and  see 
what   Mrs.   Inman  has  for  dinner.      Much  obliged.      (Applause.) 

(Adjourned  until  the  afternoon  session.) 


199 

THURSDAY,  JUNE  18,  AFTERNOON  SESSION 
Samuel  C.  Hunt,  Chief  of  Jacksonville  Fire  Department,  Chairman 


Chairman  Hunt:  Gentlemen,  come  to  order.  I  have  been  ap- 
pointed to  preside  over  this  meeting  this  afternoon.  The  first  gen- 
tleman on  the  program  will  be  Mr.  R.  O.  Matson  of  Underwriters' 
Laboratories,  with  a  paper  on  First-Aid  Extinguisher-.  <  Applause.  I 
After  Mr.  Matson  completes  his  paper  there  will  be  a  demonstration 
in  the  rear  of  the  Transportation  building  over  where  we  were  yester- 
day afternoon. 

FIRST-AID  EXTINGUISHERS 
By  R.  O.  Matson,  Underwriters'  Laboratories,  Chicago 

Before  opening  up  the  subject  on  First-Aid  Extinguishers,  I  want 
to  make  a  few  preliminary  remarks.  First,  in  regard  to  this  pamph- 
let put  in  your  hands,  which  is  issued  by  the  Western  Actuarial 
Bureau  for  the  use  of  inspectors.  It  is  not  issued  by  Underwriters' 
Laboratories,  but  is  put  in  your  hands  so  that  you  may  have  before 
you  a  classification  of  extinguishers. 

In  regard  to  questions,  if  any  questions  come  up  in  your  minds 
while  I  am  talking  on  a  certain  subject,  don't  hesitate  to  interrupt  me 
at  that  time.  However,  if  there  are  any  points  not  being  discussed 
that  you  want  to  bring  up,  I  prefer  that  you  hold  those  until  the 
address  is  ended  and  then  1  will  try  to  answer  any  questions  I  am  able 
to. 

It  might  appear  at  first  thought,  on  account  of  the  great  number 
of  first-aid  extinguishers  in  the  field  and  because  of  the  general  ac- 
ceptance of  these  appliances  as  a  valuable  form  of  fire  protection, 
that  this  subject  does  not  involve  any  special  problems  and  can  there- 
fore be  dismissed  with  a  few  general  remarks.  It  is  this  attitude  which 
results  m  the  failure  of  first-aid  fire  extinguishers  to  aftord  the 
maximum  fire  protection  possible.  Too  often  do  purchasers  and 
owners  of  first-aid  extinguishers  assume  that  their  responsibility  ends 
when  they  have  installed  these  appliances  in  their  buildings  and  too 
often  do  persons  who  might  be  called  upon  to  use  an  extinguisher  in 
the  event  of  fire  have  little  or  no  knowledge  of  its  use  and  operation. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  1  wish  to  direct  your  particular  attention 
to  two  most  important  phases  of  this  subject  this  afternoon:  the  care 
and  maintenance  and  the  use  and  operation  of  first-aid  extinguishers. 

It  might  be  well,  therefore,  to  point  out  at  this  time  that  the 
amount  of  fire  protection  which  any  first-aid  extinguisher  is  capable 
of  rendering  is  directly  dependent  upon  the  care  and  maintenance 
given  it  and  upon  the  ability  of  the  user  to  operate  it  efficiently  in  the 
event  of  fire.  An  extinguisher  not  maintained  in  a  serviceable  con- 
dition might,  under  some  circumstances,  be  worse  than  no  extinguisher 
at  all.  Such  a  device  is  objectionable  because  of  the  false  sense  of 
security  given,  and  because  of  the  possible  delay  in  effectively  com- 


200 

batting  a  fire.  Assume,  if  you  please,  a  foam  extinguisher  being  car- 
ried to  the  scene  of  a  fire  and  when  inverted,  it  fails  to  discharge 
the  extinguishing  liquid.  The  user  probably  spends  several  precious 
minutes  in  attempting  to  bring  the  machine  into  action,  but  without 
results.  What  is  the  trouble?  Strainer,  hose,  and  nozzle  clogged  as 
a  result  of  the  failure  to  thoroughly  wash  the  extinguisher  before 
recharging  the  last  time.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  comply  with  the 
manufacturer's  directions  regarding  recharging  and  to  make  periodic 
inspections  to  insure  that  these  appliances  are  maintained  in  an  operable 
condition. 

That  which  has  been  said  in  regard  to  maintenance  is  equally 
true  of  the  proper  use  of  first-aid  extinguishers.  To  obtain  the  maxi- 
mum fire  protection  from  an  appliance  it  is  important  that  the  operator 
be  one  who  is  acquainted  with  its  use  and  operation.  A  perfectly 
good  extinguisher  in  the  hands  of  one  not  familiar  with  its  use  might 
result  in  the  spread  of  fire  rather  than  in  its  control.  Assuming  an- 
other hypothetical  case,  imagine  a  fire  in  a  dip  tank,  that  is,  a  vat 
containing  a  flammable  liquid  such  as  paint  or  varnish.  A  two  and 
one-half  gallon  soda-acid  extinguisher  is  carried  to  the  fire,  inverted 
and  the  stream  directed  into  the  center  of  the  burning  liquid.  What 
are  the  results?  The  flammable  liquid  is  splashed  around,  resulting 
in  the  spread  of  fire  to  the  outside  of  the  tank,  and  the  extinguishing 
liquid  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank  without  any  retarding  effect 
upon  the  fire.  All  this  merely  because  a  perfectly  good  extinguisher 
for  certain  types  of  fires  was  discharged  into  the  center  of  a  tank  of 
burning  flammable  liquid.  It  is  not  enough  to  know  that  an  ex- 
tinguisher is  operated  by  inverting  or  by  working  a  hand  pump :  it 
is  equally  important  to  know  the  suitability  of  an  extinguisher  for  use 
on  various  types  of  fires  and  the  most  effective  manner  of  attacking 
such  fires. 

Because  of  the  suitability  of  first-aid  extinguishers  for  use  on  only 
certain  kinds  of  fires,  it  is  necessary  to  give  some  consideration  to 
the  ways  in  which  fires  differ  from  one  another  and  to  the  most  effec- 
tive means  of  controlling  each.  For  the  purpose  of  classifying  ex- 
tinguishers as  to  their  suitability  for  use  on  various  kinds  of  fires, 
incipient  fires  are  divided  into  three  groups  known  as  Class  A.  B,  and 
C  fires. 

Class  A  fires  are  defined  as  those  in  which  the  cooling  or  quench- 
ing effect  of  water  is  of  prime  importance  in  extinguishing  them.  The 
ordinary  wood,  clothing  and  paper  fires  are  examples  of  this  class. 
Such  fires  are  extinguished  by  directing  the  stream  of  extinguishing 
liquid  at  the  base  of  the  flames.  The  soda-acid,  foam,  calcium  chlor- 
ide, hand  pump,  etc.,  in  fact  any  appliance  employing  water  as  the 
extinguishing  agent,  are  types  of  extinguishers  suitable  for  use  on 
Class  A  fires  and  are  therefore  termed  Class  A  extinguishers. 

Class  B.  fires  are  those  in  which  the  blanketing  or  smothering 
effect  of  the  extinguishing  agent  is  of  greatest  importance  in  controll- 
ing them.  Combustion  is  a  chemical  reaction  in  which  oxygen  com- 
bines with  the  burning  material.  Generally,  the  oxygen  entering  into 
this  reaction  is  supplied  by  the  air.     Obviously  such  fires  can  be  smorh- 


201 

ered  by  excluding  the  air  from  the  burning  material.  Group  B  fires 
are  those  in  which  this  means  of  fire  control  is  employed,  and  examples 
of  this  group  are  fires  in  small  quantities  of  flammable  liquids.  Such 
lires  should  be  attacked  by  directing  the  stream  of  the  extinguishing 
agent,  not  into  the  burning  material,  but  rather  against  the  side  of  the 
container  near  the  oil  surface,  from  which  point  it  can  be  spread  over 
the  surface  of  the  burning  liquid,  forming  a  blanket  and  excluding  the 
air.  Foam  and  carbon  tetrachloride  extinguishers  are  those  employing 
this  principle  of  fire  extinguishment  and  are  known  as  Class  B  extin- 
guishers. 

Class  C  fires  are  incipient  fires  in  electrical  equipment,  where  the 
non-conducting  property  of  the  extinguishing  material  is  of  prime 
importance.  Carbon  tetrachloride,  because  of  its  non-conducting  prop- 
erty and  also  because  it  is  not  injurious  to  electrical  equipment,  is 
especially  suitable  as  a  fire  extinguishing  agent  for  this  type  of  a  fire. 
Appliances  which  employ  a  material  suitable  for  use  on  lires  of  this 
group  are  known  as  Class  C  extinguishers. 

In  order  to  provide  some  means  of  indicating  the  relative  effective- 
ness of  each  type  of  extinguisher  in  fire  control,  a  system  has  been 
devised  having  as  its  basis  a  unit  of  first-aid  fire  protection,  and  the 
value  of  any  one  type  of  extinguisher  as  compared  with  another  type 
suitable  for  the  same  class  fire,  is  indicated  by  the  number  of  appli- 
ances of  each  type  which  constitute  one  unit.  Referring  to  the  list  of 
extinguishers  on  the  leaflet  which  you  have,  you  will  note  that  the 
class  of  fire  for  which  each  extinguisher  is  suitable  and  the  number 
of  appliances  of  each  type  which  comprise  one  unit  of  first-aid  fire 
protection,  are  given  in  the  second  column.  This  classification  system 
is  employed  on  the  labels  which  are  now  attached  to  extinguishers  in- 
spected by  Underwriters'  Laboratories. 

The  two  and  one-half  gallon  soda-acid  extinguisher  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  cylindrical  tank  of  approximately  three  gallons  capacity, 
with  hose  and  nozzle  attached,  and  an  acid  bottle  supported  in  a  metal 
cage  within  the  tank.  The  tank  contains  two  and  one-half  gallons  of 
water  in  which  is  dissolved  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  sodium  bi- 
carbonate (NaHC03),  and  the  acid  bottle  approximately  four  (liquid) 
ounces  of  commercial  sulphuric  acid  (H2S04).  Soda-acid  extin- 
guishers are  of  two  types :  The  loose  stopple  type  contains  an  open 
necked  bottle  and  is  operated  by  inverting;  the  break  bottle  type  con- 
tains a  sealed  acid  bottle  and  is  operated  by  shattering  the  acid  bottle 
by  means  of  a  plunger  extending  through  the  extinguisher  cover. 
Upon  operation  the  acid  flows  from  the  acid  bottle  and  enters  into  a 
chemical  reaction  with  the  soda,  and  as  a  result  carbon  dioxide  gas 
(C02)  is  formed  under  pressure.  It  is  this  gas  which  causes  the 
water  to  be  discharged  through  the  hose  and  nozzle. 

The  idea  is  not  uncommon  that  this  type  of  extinguisher,  some- 
times known  as  a  chemical  extinguisher,  contains  some  mysterious 
chemical  which  when  thrown  on  a  lire  immediately  snaps  out  the  blaze. 
The  extinguishing  agent  upon  which  soda-acid  extinguishers  are  de- 
pendent for  their  fire  control  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  is  nothing 
more  than  two  and  one-half  gallons  of  water.     While  it  is  true  that 


202 

the  carbon  dioxide  formed  is  a  non-flammable  gas,  it  ordinarily  plays 
no  material  part  as  an  extinguishing  agent  in  this  extinguisher  for  the 
reason  that  it  is  practically  all  dissipated  in  the  air  before  the  stream 
reaches  the  burning  material.  There  are  cases,  however,  such  as 
chimney  fires,  where  the  carbon  dioxide  has  been  effective  in  fire  con- 
trol. 

Idle  two  and  one-half -gallon  soda-acid  extinguisher  is  suitable  for 
use  only  on  Class  A  fires  and  should  not  be  employed  on  flammable 
liquid  tires  and  fires  in  electrical  equipment.  This  type  extinguisher 
bears  a  classification  of  A-'l,  one  device  constituting  one  unit  of  first- 
aid  protection  on  Class  A  fires.  Soda-acid  extinguishers  are  not 
charged  when  received  from  the  manufacturer,  and  therefore  must  be 
charged  in  accordance  with  the  manufacturer's  directions  before  in- 
stalling. It  might  seem  unnecessary  to  mention  that  extinguishers  of 
this  type  should  be  charged  when  received,  but  cases  are  known  where 
this  very  thing  has  been  neglected. 

They  should  be  discharged  and  recharged  yearly  to  determine 
whether  they  are  in  an  operable  condition  and  to  insure  that  they 
are  charged  properly.  A  desirable  arrangement  is  to  have  such  per- 
sons as  might  be  called  upon  to  use  these  appliances  in  case  of  fire, 
discharge  them  in  order  that  they  may  become  familiar  with  their 
operating  characteristics. 

When  replacements,  such  as  hose  and  acid  bottle,  are  necessary, 
they  should  be  obtained  from  the  manufacturer  of  the  extinguisher, 
as  parts  not  especially  intended  for  use  in  a  particular  device  might 
result  in  altering  the  operating  characteristics  of  that  device. 

Repairs  should  never  be  made  on  the  extinguisher  except  by  the 
manufacturer,  as  inferior  workmanship  might  result  in  an  explosion 
during  operation  of  the  machine  because  of  the  pressure  developed. 

Soda-acid  extinguishers  should  be  protected  from  freezing  by  plac- 
ing in  a  warm  room  or  heated  cabinet  where  the  temperature  is  not 
allowed  to  go  below  40°  F.  The  practice  of  placing  calcium  chloride 
(CaC12)  or  sodium  chloride  (NaCl)  in  the  soda  solution  should  not 
be  permitted.  Calcium  chloride  is  objectionable  because  of  the  re- 
action which  takes  place,  resulting  in  the  loss  of  carbon  dioxide  gas, 
and  sodium  chloride  because  of  its  corrosive  influences.  Besides,  low- 
ering the  freezing  point  of  the  soda  solution  does  rot  protect  the  acid 
within  the  acid  bottle.  While  it  is  true  that  commercial  sulphuric 
acid,  GG°  Baume,  has  a  very  low  freezing  point,  it  is  also  a  fact  that 
such  acid  has  the  property  of  absorbing  water  or  moisture  from  the 
air  and  when  sufficient  moisture  has  been  absorbed  to  reduce  the  grav- 
ity to  65  Baume,  the  freezing  point  of  the  acid  is  practically  the  same 
as  that  of  water.  It  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized  that  any  other 
means  to  protect  soda-acid  extinguishers  from  freezing  than  that  of 
maintaining  the  temperature  of  the  solution  above  10 :  F.  have  not 
met  with  success. 

What  has  been  said  of  the  principle  of  operation,  use  and  main- 
tenance of  two  and  one-half  gallon  soda-acid  extinguishers  applies 
equally  as  well  to  one  and  one-half  gallon  extinguishers  of  this  type. 
These  extinguishers  are  especially  suitable   for  use  in  homes,  schools. 


203 

and  the  like,  where  they  may  he  operated  hy  women  and  children.  This 
appliance  bears  a  classification  of  A-2,  it  being  suitable  for  use  only  on 
Class  A  fires,  and  two  machines  constituting  one  unit  of  fire  protection. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  two  and  one-half  gallon  foam  ex- 
tinguisher is  similar  to  that  of  the  two  and  one-half  gallon  soda-acid 
extinguisher.  Instead  of  an  acid  bottle,  however,  a  long  cylindrical 
inner  container  is  supported  within  the  outer  shell.  The  outer  shell 
contains  a  solution  of  sodium  bicarbonate  (NaHC03)  and  a  foam  in- 
gredient ;  and  the  inner  container  a  solution  of  aluminum  sulphate 
(Al2(S0d)3).  Upon  inverting  the  extinguisher  the  two  solutions 
mix  and  a  chemical  reaction  takes  place  between  the  sodium  bicarbon- 
ate and  the  aluminum  sulphate,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  carbon 
dioxide  gas  under  pressure.  The  foam  ingredient  does  not  enter  into 
the  chemical  reaction,  but  gives  stability  and  substance  to  the  minute 
carbon  dioxide  filled  bubbles  which  are  produced.  In  this  extinguisher 
the  carbon  dioxide  serves  two  purposes  :  It  results  in  discharging  the 
extinguishing  liquid  from  the  machine,  and  it  serves  as  a  part  of  the 
extinguishing  agent.  The  foam  consisting  of  minute  bubbles  filled 
with  this  incombustible  gas  forms  a  blanket  over  the  burning  ma- 
terial, excluding  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  thereby  extinguishing  the  fire. 

Foam  extinguishers  are  suitable  for  use  on  Class  A  and  B  fires, 
but  not  on  Class  C  fires.  Upon  Class  A  fires,  both  the  cooling  effect 
of  the  water  employed  in  the  extinguishing  agent  and  the  smothering 
effect  of  the  form  are  of  importance  in  fire  control.  Upon  Class  B 
fires,  the  blanketing  effect  or  smothering  effect  only  is  of  importance. 
While,  when  attacking  A  fires  with  this  extinguisher,  the  stream  should 
be  directed  at  the  base  of  the  flames,  when  attacking  B  fires  the  stream 
should  be  directed  against  the  side  of  the  container  in  order  that  the 
foam  produced  may  flow  over  the  surface  of  the  burning  liquid  to 
form  the  most  effective  blanket.  One  two  and  one-half  gallon  foam 
extinguisher  constitutes  a  unit  of  first-aid  protection  on  both  Class  A 
and  B  fires. 

Foam  extinguishers  are  not  charged  when  received  and  therefore 
should  be  charged  in  accordance  with  the  manufacturer's  instructions 
before  being  installed.  They  should  be  discharged  and  recharged 
yearly.  Only  charges  furnished  by  the  manufacturer  of  the  extin- 
guisher should  be  used. 

Special  precautions  should  be  taken  to  wash  all  parts  of  the  ex- 
tinguisher after  discharging  to  insure  that  the  outlet  strainer,  hose, 
and  nozzle  are  not  clogged.  When  recharging,  the  solutions  should 
be  made  up  in  separate  containers  and  should  not  be  poured  into  the 
extinguisher  until  the  charges  are  thoroughly  dissolved. 

Foam  extinguishers  must  be  protected  from  freezing  in  the  same 
manner  as  soda-acid  extinguishers;  that  is,  by  placing  in  a  warm  room 
or  heated  cabinet,  and  not  by  depressing  the  freezing  point  of  the  solu- 
tions. While  these  extinguishers  are  intended  to  operate  in  an  accep- 
table manner  at  temperatures  between  40°  and  120°  F.,  the  most  ef- 
fective stream  and  best  quality  of  foam  is  produced  when  operating 
at  temperatures  around  70°  F.,  which  is  ordinary  temperature.  At  the 
lower  temperatures  the  chemical  reaction  is  somewhat  slower,  tending 


204 

to  result  in  sluggish  operation,  and  at  the  higher  temperatures  the 
chemical  reaction  tends  to  produce  a  stream  which  sprays  somewhat. 
In  order  to  obtain  the  maximum  fire  protection  from  this  type  of  an 
extinguisher  it  is  important  that  the  solutions  be  kept  as  near  to  ordi- 
nary room  temperature  as  possible.  For  this  reason  it  is  recommended 
that  where  lower  temperature  conditions  might  be  encountered,  foam 
extinguishers  be  installed  in  warmed  rooms  or  heated  cabinets  where 
the  temperature  is  not  allowed  to  go  below  50°  F.,  and  that  they  never 
be  placed  near  boilers,  heaters,  etc.,  or  in  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun, 
where  they  might  be  subject  to  excessively  high  temperature  conditions. 

The  above  remarks  in  regard  to  two  and  one-half  gallon  foam  ex- 
tinguishers apply  also  to  the  one  and  one-half  gallon  machine  of  this 
type.  This  smaller  size  is  especially  suitable  for  use  by  women  and 
children.  Two  appliances  constitute  a  unit  of  first-aid  fire  protection 
on  either  Class  A  or  B  fires. 

The  two  and  one-half  gallon  anti- freeze  extinguishers  are  those 
which  are  protected  against  freezing  and  therefore  suitable  for  use 
where  low  temperatures  are  encountered,  without  further  protection. 
These  extinguishers  contain  approximately  two  gallons  of  water  in 
which  is  dissolved  sufficient  calcium  chloride  to  depress  the  freezing 
point  of  the  solution  to  — d0°  F.,  and  are  provided  with  means  for  de- 
veloping sufficient  gas  pressure  to  discharge  this  solution  when  the 
machine  is  operated. 

One  extinguisher  of  this  type  employs  a  cartridge  containing  a 
slow  burning  fuse  to  develop  the  necessary  gas  pressure.  The  car- 
tridge is  supported  at  the  upper  end  of  a  long  inner  tube,  at  the  bottom 
of  which  is  a  heavy  weight.  When  the  extinguisher  is  inverted  the 
weight  falls  to  the  other  end  of  the  inner  tube  and  strikes  a  percussion 
cap  on  the  end  of  the  cartridge.  This  results  in  the  ignition  of  a  small 
charge  of  gunpowder,  which  in  turn  ignites  the  slow  burning  fuse. 
Another  anti-freeze  extinguisher  obtains  its  gas  pressure  as  a  result 
of  the  chemical  reaction  between  two  solutions  contained  within  an 
inner  generating  chamber.  Upon  inverting  the  extinguisher  only  the 
gas  developed  is  allowed  to  escape  from  the  generating  chamber  into 
the  outer  tank  containing  the  calcium  chloride  solution. 

Anti-freeze  extinguishers  must  be  discharged,  thoroughly  cleaned 
and  recharged  yearly.  Only  recharges  furnished  by  the  manufacturer 
of  the  device  should  be  employed.  These  extinguishers  are  suitable 
for  use  on  Class  A  fires  only,  and  have  a  classification  of  A-l,  one  ap- 
pliance constituting  a  unit  of  first-aid  protection  on  Class  A  fires. 

Hand  pump  extinguishers  consist  essentially  of  a  cylindrical  con- 
tainer provided  with  hose  and  nozzle  without  shut-oft'  and  a  hand  pump 
permanently  attached  to  the  top  of  the  tank.  Those  extinguishers 
employ  water  as  an  extinguishing  agent  and  require  continuous  pump- 
ing during  operation.  Extinguishers  of  this  type  having  a  capacity  oi 
five  gallons  are  given  a  classification  of  A-l,  while  those  having  a  ca- 
pacity of  two  and  one-half  gallons  a  classification  of  A-2.  Although 
the  two  and  one-half  gallon  hand  pump  extinguisher  employes  the  same 
quantity  of  extinguishing  liquid  as  the  two  and  one-half  gallon  soda- 
acid  extinguisher,  it  is  not  considered  entitled  to  a  classification  rating 


205 

of  A-l  for  the  reason  that  it  requires  pumping  during  operation,  which 
does  not  permit  the  operator  to  give  his  entire  attention  to  steam  di- 
rection, as  is  the  case  with  the  soda-acid  extinguisher.  Obviously,  the 
most  effective  fire  control  will  be  obtained  from  a  machine  which  will 
permit  the  operator  to  concentrate  his  attention  on  stream  direction 
and  not  necessitate  dividing  his  attention  on  other  phases  of  the  oper- 
ation. 

These  extinguishers  may  be  protected  from  freezing  by  dissolving 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  special  calcium  chloride  to  depress  the  freez- 
ing point  of  the  solution  below  the  lowest  temperature  to  which  it 
might  be  exposed.  A  solution  of  rive  pounds  of  calcium  chloride  in 
one  gallon  of  water  has  a  freezing  point  of  — 40°  F.,  so  where  temper- 
atures approaching  this  are  reached  this  proportion  of  calcium  chlor- 
ide to  water  should  be  used.  Hard  deposits  are  at  times  formed  on 
the  pump  cylinder  and  piston  rod  at  the  liquid  surface  when  a  solution 
of  calcium  chloride  is  used,  these  deposits  rendering  the  pump  un- 
serviceable in  some  cases.  To  reduce  the  possibility  of  such  forma- 
tions to  a  minimum  the  calcium  chloride  used  should  be  free  from  mag- 
nesium chloride  and  other  such  impurities,  which  appear  to  be  respon- 
sible for  this  condition,  and  the  pump  parts  should  be  lubricated  with 
a  mixture  of  heavy  grease  and  graphite.  The  pump  should  be  operated 
frequently  to  insure  it  being  in  a  good  condition  and  the  container  re- 
filled when  necessary.  The  appliance  should  be  completely  discharged 
and  recharged  yearly. 

Bucket  tanks,  casks,  and  pails  used  as  first-aid  appliances  and 
employing  water  as  the  extinguishing  agent  may  be  protected  against 
freezing  by  dissolving  sufficient  calcium  chloride  to  depress  the  freez- 
ing point  of  the  solution  below  the  lowest  temperature  to  which  it 
might  be  subjected.  These  appliances  should  not  be  used  for  other  than 
fire  purposes.  They  should  be  frequently  inspected  to  insure  that 
the  pails  are  in  a  serviceable  condition  and  that  the  water  has  not 
disappeared  either  through  evaporation  or  otherwise.  These  appliances 
should  be  discharged,  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  recharged  yearly. 

Carbon  tetrachloride  is  especially  suitable  as  an  extinguishing 
agent  for  use  on  flammable  liquid  fires  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  very 
volatile  and  in  the  gaseous  state  is  about  two  and  five-tenths  times  as 
heavy  as  air.  When  applied  on  this  kind  of  a  fire  the  stream  of  car- 
bon tetrachloride  should  be  directed  against  the  side  of  the  container 
just  above  the  flammable  liquid,  in  order  that  it  may  vaporize  the  more 
readily  and  the  gas  be  permitted  to  spread  over  the  burning  surface, 
excluding  the  air.  Should  the  stream  of  carbon  tetrachloride  be  di- 
rected into  the  flammable  liquid,  a  good  part  of  it  would  sink  because 
of  its  high  specific  gravity  and  have  no  effect  as  an  extinguishing  agent. 

Because  of  its  non-conducting  property  and  due  to  the  fact  thai 
it  has  no  injurious  effect  upon  such  equipment,  carbon  tetrachloride 
used  in  extinguishers  labeled  by  Underwriters'  Laboratories  is  espe- 
cially suitable  as  a  lire  extinguishing  agent  for  use  on  electrical  equip- 
ment fires.  While  it  is  of  course  desirable  to  shut  off  the  current 
when  attacking  an  electrical  fire,  this  may  not  always  be  possible,  and 
in  such  a  case  carbon  tetrachloride  may  be  used  on  the  electrical  equip- 


206 

ment  without  any  detrimental  effect  on  either  moving1  parts  or  sta- 
tionary parts. 

Carbon  tetrachloride  used  in  first-aid  extinguishers  labeled  by  Un- 
derwriters' Laboratories  is  especially  treated  to  remove  impurities  and 
contains  an  important  component  for  depressing  the  freezing  point  to 
— 50°  F.  Extinguishers  employing  this  special  liquid  as  the  extinguish- 
ing agent  do  not  require  protection  against  freezing. 

The  one  and  one  and  one-half  quart  carbon  tetrachloride  ex- 
tinguishers labeled  by  Underwriters'  Laboratories  are  provided  with 
a  hand  operated  pump  and  require  pumping  during  operation.  The 
one  quart  device  is  especially  suitable  for  use  in  garages,  in  boiler 
rooms  where  oil  burners  are  employed,  and  on  automobiles  and  motor 
boats.  The  one  and  one-half  quart  machines  are  especially  suitable 
for  use  in  industrial  plants  where  they  will  be  operated  by  men. 
These  appliances  are  given  a  classification  of  B-2.  C-2,  two  machines 
constituting  a  unit  of  first-aid  fire  protection  on  either  Class  B  or  C 
fires.  They  should  be  partially  discharged  and  refilled  yearly,  whether 
used  or  not.  to  insure  easy  working  action  of  the  pump.  Only  the 
special  recharges  obtained  from  the  manufacturer  of  the  device  should 
be  used  and  under  no  circumstances  should  water  be  poured  into 
the  device.  Water  or  carbon  tetrachloride  not  specially  prepared 
might  result  in  corrosion  of  the  pump  parts,  rending  the  extinguisher 
unserviceable. 

The  one  gallon  carbon  tetrachloride  extinguishers  labeled  by  Un- 
derwriters' Laboratories  consist  essentially  of  a  liquid  chamber,  a  com- 
pressed air  chamber  and  a  hand  jump.  The  air  chamber  is  normally 
under  a  pressure  of  100  pounds  per  square  inch,  which  may  be  re- 
established by  means  of  the  attached  pump.  The  extinguisher  is  oper- 
ated by  opening  a  valve  which  allows  the  compressed  air  to  enter 
the  liquid  chamber,  resulting  in  the  discharge  of  the  liquid  through  a 
hose  and  nozzle. 

The  one  gallon  carbon  tetrachloride  extinguishers  are  intended 
fur  special  use  in  electrical  power  stations  and  industrial  establish- 
ments where  consideration  is  given  to  the  great  amount  of  liquid 
employed  and  where  they  will  be  operated  by  experienced  men.  Where 
these  extinguishers  are  used  it  is  necessary  to  take  precautions  to 
protect  the  user  from  the  toxic  effects  of  the  vapors  formed.  Persons 
who  might  be  called  upon  to  use  these  appliances  should  be  familiar 
with  their  use  and  operation,  and  should  be  instructed  in  regard  to 
the  hazard  involved.  An  ordinary  gas  mask,  such  as  were  used  dur- 
ing tlie  recent  war,  provides  a  very  convenient  and  effective  means 
of  protecting  the  operator  from  the  gases  formed  when  the  carbon 
tetrachloride  is  played  on  a  fire.  These  extinguishers  are  given  a 
classification  of  B-2  bv  Underwriters'  Laboratories  for  the  reason  that 
they  are  not  capable  of  controlling  as  large  tires  in  flammable  liquids 
as  the  two  and  one-half  gallon  foam  extinguisher;  and  a  classifica- 
tion of  C-l  because  of  the  large  quantity  of  non-conducting  liquid 
employed  as  the  extinguishing  agent. 

These  extinguishers  should  be  inspected  periodically  to  determine 
whether   the   air    pressure   is   maintained   and   the   pressure   should  be 


20  ; 

re-established  to  100  pounds  per  square  inch  when  necessary.  Only 
special  carbon  tetrachloride  obtained  from  the  manufacturer  of  the 
extinguisher  should  be  used  for  recharging.      (Applause.) 

Chairman  Hunt  :  Another  announcement  I  would  like  to  make. 
After  the  demonstration  on  the  outside,  automobiles  will  be  there  to 
take  this  body  of  men  to  the  Champaign  and  Urbana  waterworks. 
There  will  be  cigars  and  soda  pop  besides.  If  there  are  any  ques- 
tions you  would  like  to  ask  this  gentleman  in  regard  to  these  fire  ex- 
tinguishers before  we  adjourn,  they  will  be  in  order  now.  If  not 
we  will  adjourn  outside  for  the  demonstration. 

(Demonstration  of  fire  extinguishers  given  on  the  outside.) 


FRIDAY,  JUNE  19,  MORNING  SESSION 

Roy  Alsip.  Secretary,  Illinois  Firemen's  Association.  Chairman 


Chairman  Alsip:  Gentlemen,  we  will  come  to  order.  The  first 
thing  on  the  program  this  morning  will  be  a  demonstration  and  talk 
by  Harry  K.  Rogers  of  the  Western  Actuarial  Bureau.  It  gives  me 
pleasure,  gentlemen,  to  introduce   Air.   Rogers.      (Applause.) 

MODERN  METHODS  OF  FIRE  EXTINGUISHMENT 

By  Harry  K.  Rogers,  Engineer,  Western  Actuarial  Bureau,  Chicago 

Mr.  Chairman  and  Gentlemen  :  In  the  first  place  I  desire  to 
pay  a  tribute  to  the  firemen,  not  only  of  the  state  of  Illinois,  but  of  the 
entire  United  States.  You  men  represent  that  reserve  which  stands 
between  the  general  public  and  the  open  jaws  of  hell  you  are  so  often 
called  upon  to  enter.  It  is  not  often  that  the  average  layman,  the 
man  in  business,  the  citizen  of  your  community,  pays  much  atten- 
tion to  the  fire  department.  It  is  very  seldom  that  they  think  of  you 
and  if  a  thought  does  come  it  is  a  fleeting  one,  except  in  the  time 
of  necessity,  when  a  man's  house  or  his  place  of  business  is  on  fire, 
and  then  he  gives  a  great  deal  of  thought  and  attention  to  the  fire 
department;  but  until  that  time  comes  you  are  not  in  his  mind  per- 
haps as  much  as  you  should  be. 

He  does  not  realize  that  your  business  has  become  very  scientific, 
in  a  degree,  I  might  say,  almost  as  scientific  as  that  of  the  physician  or 
any  of  the  other  sciences.  The  old  haphazard  method  of  fire  ex- 
tinguishment  in  passe,  they  are  not  doing  much  of  that  any  more.  You 
are  employing  different  methods  than  those  used  a  few  years  ago. 
The  best  example  of  that,T  might  say,  is  the  great  improvements  that 
have  been  made  from  a  purely  scientific  standpoint  in  the  matter  of 
equipment.  Fire  apparatus  today  compared  with  that  a  few  years  ago 
is  much  finer,  much  more  effective  in  its  work.  However,  if  me- 
chanically perfect  machines  and  faultless  tire  alarm  systems  were  all 
that  is  necessary  to  constitute  efficiency  in  a  tire  department,  many 
cities  would  be  perfect  in  this  respect,  but  while  these  great  improve- 


208 

merits,  involving  the  expenditure  of  thousands  of  dollars,  are  very 
necessary,  there  is  a  third  or  human  element  which  is  the  most  im- 
portant factor.  The  mechanical  equipment  can  go  only  so  far  in  the 
extinguishment  of  fires.  The  personnel  of  the  department  is  a  far 
more  important  factor.  For  that  reason  every  man  in  the  depart- 
ment must  be  well  trained,  active  and  capable  of  filling  his  position 
in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  not  be  detrimental  to  the  functioning 
of  the  department.  For  this  reason  the  modern  drill  school  or  the 
fire  college  has  been  instituted  in  a  great  many  of  our  fire  departments. 

I  do  not  think  it  would  be  amiss  to  mention  the  four  major  parts. 
The  first  might  be  termed  practical  hydraulics,  which  has  to  do  with 
fire,  smoke,  back  pressure,  etc.  If  a  man  is  trained  to  know  what 
the  limits  are  and  what  is  most  effective  in  this  important  branch 
of  fire  service,  his  work  as  a  matter  of  course  is  more  effective  than 
if  he  were  going  at  it  blindly. 

The  second  division  I  will  term  the  chemistry  of  fire,  which  has 
to  do  with  causes  and  effects.  Those  things  are  very  necessary  in 
fire  prevention  work, — inspections  by  uninformed  members  of  the  fire 
department, — for  the  reason  if  you  will  inspect  a  place  of  business 
where  the  stock  in  trade  might  be  of  a  dangerous  combustible  na- 
ture, capable  of  starting  fires  by  spontaneous  combustion,  it  is  well 
for  you  to  have  some  knowledge  of  the  chemistry  of  fire  in  order  that 
these  various  commodities  might  be  segregated  or  properly  safe- 
guarded. I  do  not  mean  you  should  have  a  degree  in  chemistry  or 
a  degree  in  hydraulic  engineering.  I  do  not  mean  that  at  all,  but 
there  are  certain  fundamental  principles  involved  that  every  fireman  to 
be  efficient  should  become  more  or  less  familiar  with  in  order  that  he 
can  do  the  things  so  necessary  in  these  inspections. 

This  chemistry  of  fire  treats  exhaustively  on  the  subject  of  oxi- 
dation, slow  burning.  It  is  nothing  more  or  less  than  a  slow  process 
of  burning.  If  we  had  two  blocks  of  wood  as  nearly  identical  as 
possible  and  we  would  place  one  in  a  furnace  and  burn  it.  we  all 
know  a  certain  amount  of  heat  would  be  generated  by  the  consump- 
tion of  that  block  of  wood,  and  if  the  other  block  so  nearly  the  same 
size  as  the  first  one  was  placed  on  the  ground  and  exposed  to  the 
elements,  it  would  in  time  disappear  until  nothing  but  a  small  residue 
or  ash  is  left.  Exactly  the  same  amount  of  heat  has  been  generated 
by  the  piece  of  wood  laid  on  the  ground  as  the  one  placed  in  the 
furnace,  the  only  difference  being  in  the  point  of  time  consumed  in 
this  operation.  The  chemistry  of  fire,  as  I  have  said,  treats  ex- 
haustively of  this  process  of  oxidation.  Causes  and  effects.  It  is 
well  to  know  things  of  that  sort. 

The  chemistry  of  fire  also  applies  to  the  subject  of  gas  masks, 
proper  masks  to  use  under  certain  conditions.  This  subject  has  been 
treated  very  capably  here  during  this  course  and  1  shall  not  touch 
on  that  this  morning. 

This  second  branch  or  division  treats  of  proper  extinguishing 
advantages,  proper  types  of  chemical  extinguishers  to  use  under  cer- 
tain conditions,   which  is  really  a  science  in  itself. 


209 

Now,  coming  down  to  the  third  division  or  the  third  department 
of  the  modern  fire  college,  we  will  call  it  the  drill  school  of  evolution, 
which  has  to  do  with  the  proper  handling  of  all  equipment.  The 
statement  was  made  by  Mr.  Wolf  during  this  conference  that  not 
many  of  you  men  could  properly  name  every  piece  of  equipment 
carried  on  the  ordinary  aerial  truck  and  I  believe  that  statement  to 
be  absolutely  true.  I  doubt  very  much  if  there  are  more  than  a 
very  small  number  of  men  in  this  hall  at  this  time  who  could  go  to  the 
service  truck  or  aerial  truck  downtown  and  pick  up  every  piece  of 
equipment  carried  on  that  truck,  give  its  proper  name  and  tell  how 
it  could  be  used  most  effectively.  I  doubt  if  that  could  be  done  by 
anyone  in  this  body.  This  training  school,  or  school  of  evolution,  has 
to  do  with  that  phase  of  the  work,  the  proper  handling  of  all  apparatus 
and  equipment,  its  use  and  why.  A  Aery,  very  effective  thing.  It 
standardizes  the  work  of  the  men  so  that  when  two  or  more  men  are 
used  in  any  single  evolution  every  man  knows  exactly  what  is  expected 
of  him.  He  furthermore  knows  exactly  what  is  expected  of  the 
other  fellow.  He  knows  exactly  what  the  other  fellow  is  going  to 
do  and  by  a  coordination  of  effort  you  accomplish  results  with  a  mini- 
mum amount  of  energy  expended. 

Mr.  Wolf  said  the  other  day  in  instituting  drill  schools  he  had  met 
with  opposition  a  time  or  two  on  the  part  of  the  firemen,  due  to  the 
fact  that  this  course  is  intensive,  it  is  hard  work  perhaps  while  being 
instituted,  and  I  have  had  exactly  the  same  experience  in  my  work. 
The  men  rather  resent  being  forced  to  go  out  of  the  engine  house  and 
do  certain  evolutions  that  are  tiresome  and  hard  work,  but  after  they 
have  been  at  it  a  few  days,  as  told  you  by  Air.  Wolf,  they  come  to 
a  realization  that,  while  the  work  is  hard  at  the  start,  it  makes  the 
actual  business  of  fire  fighting  so  much  easier.  The  balance  of  the 
scale  is  thrown  the  other  way,  providing  your  drill  master  is  not  a 
driver,  a  man  that  will  use  ordinary  common  sense  and  judgment. 

I  know  of  a  case  of  a  fire  department  employing  about  one  hun- 
dred men.  where  the  Chicago  drill  school  methods  were  instituted 
several  years  ago.  This  town  has  a  central  engine  house  with  seven 
or  eight  pieces  of  apparatus  in  it  and  I  think  possibly  twenty-seven 
or  twenty-eight  men  stationed  at  this  central  house.  The  drill  field 
is  located  back  of  it.  The  men  at  headquarters  drill  approximately 
five  hours  a  day,  every  day  in  the  week  except  Saturday  and  Sunday; 
the  outlying  men  get  in  once  or  twice  a  year  for  a  day's  schooling. 
In  my  estimation  that's  a  poor  way  to  conduct  a  fire  college.  These 
men  are  so  sick  and  tired  of  these  activities  of  the  tire  school  that 
when  they  have  a  chance  to  put  these  things  in  operation  at  a  fire 
they  don't  do  it.  The  thing  has  been  greatly  overdone  in  this  one 
city,  sacrificing  the  work  with  the  outlying  houses  and  compelling  this 
one  group  of  men  to  do  it  over  and  over  again  until  it  has  become 
a  burden.  I  don't  believe  that's  proper,  I  think  ordinary  common 
sense  should  guide  your  methods  in  the  institution  of  drill  schools 
in  your  departments  so  that  the  men  do  not  get  thoroughly  sick  and 
tired  of  it. 


210 

Learn  the  best  ways  of  doing  things.  It  teaches  the  proper  meth- 
ods of  raising  and  lowering  ladders  of  different  types ;  it  teaches 
the  proper  method  of  advancing  on  fires  with  hose  streams ;  the 
proper  methods  of  carrying  hose,  regardless  of  the  location  of  the  fire. 

While  I  am  greatly  interested  in  the  Chicago  method  and  in  my 
estimation  the  school  of  evolution  perhaps  is  the  best  in  the  country, 
I  have  actively  engaged  in  the  work  in  the  other  schools  and  have 
found  things  in  Detroit,  Philadelphia  and  Xew  York  drill  schools  I 
like  better  than  the  methods  used  in  Chicago,  but  these  drill  schools 
in  your  community  must  cover  the  thing  in  your  town.  I  think  cer- 
tain things  done  in  the  New  York  fire  college  arc  very  good  for  New 
York,  but  would  be  practically  valueless  in  Oklahoma  City.  Things 
are  done  in  Oklahoma  City  that  would  be  of  no  use  in  Xew  York.  I 
don't  think  you  can  go  to  any  drill  school  in  the  country  and  go  home 
and  put  all  those  things  in  effect  in  your  town.  I  think  these  various 
drills  and  evolutions  should  be  adapted  to  your  own  community. 

The  fourth  and  last  division  of  the  modern  drill  school  is  that 
of  life  saving  and  first  aid.  Every  fireman  owes  it  not  only  to  him- 
self, but  the  community  he  safeguards,  to  become  as  proficient  in  this 
important  branch  as  possible,  because  in  this  hazardous  business  of 
yours  you  never  know  when  an  emergency  is  going  to  arise. 

I  trust  everyone  of  you  have  assimilated  the  knowledge,  the 
work  which  has  been  so  graphically  presented  here  by  Mr.  Wolf  in 
this  particular  line.  He  is  an  expert  in  the  business  and  if  you  paid 
careful  attention  to  what  he  told  you  in  reference  to  life  saving  and 
first-aid  I  am  sure  that  one  thing  alone  will  have  paid  you  for  the 
time  and  effort  it  cost  you  to  attend  this  meeting. 

This,  gentlemen,  in  a  very  small  measure  shows  the  advances  that 
have  been  made  in  the  science  of  fire  fighting  from  a  training  school 
standpoint,  but  does  not  in  any  way  show  the  improvements  which  have 
been  made  in  this  most  interesting  of  all  departments  of  civic  welfare. 

There  has  been  a  subject  mentioned  two  or  three  times  by  speak- 
ers that  could  not  possibly  be  treated  effectively  in  <  ne  day's  time,  the 
subject  of  ventilation  ;  a  comparatively  new  science  in  fire  fighting  and 
a  most  deserving  one.  In  ventilating  certain  facts  should  always  be 
kept  in  mind,  the  first  of  which  is  that  it  is  never  proper  to  open  up 
ventilation  until  you  have  lines  available  for  immediate1  entry  into  the 
building.  That  is,  if  we  have  a  tire  we  should  not  open  that  building 
until  hose  lines  were  laid  so  we  could  follow  in  immediately  as  soon 
as  the  gas  and  smoke  cleared  out  to  start  the  extinguishing  business. 
That,  of  course,  should  be  true  only  where  there  is  not  a  life  at  stake. 
If  lives  are  to  be  saved  we  should  not  pay  attention  to  the  extinguish- 
ing of  the  fire  until  we  get  the  people  out  of  the  building.  That's  the 
first  business  of  a  fireman  always,  but  in  the  ordinary  mercantile  lire 
don't  open  your  house  or  building  until  you  have  available  lines  for 
immediate  entry. 

The  second  thing  in  this  consideration  of  ventilation  is  selecting 
the  proper  place  to  ventilate.  If  there  is  a  cock  loft  or  an  elevator 
shaft  011  the  top  of  the  building,  that  constitutes  a  wonderful  flue 
which  will  clear  the  building  as  rapidly  as  possible  of  the  gases.     That's 


211 

the  proper  place  to  ventilate  unless  this  vent  house  or  cock  loft  is 
exposed  to  some  other  building-  of  combustible  material.  That  should 
be  taken  into  consideration.  Use  care  and  disc--* ion  in  opening, 
but  get  it  open  as  soon  as  possible. 

Just  recently  I  saw  a  lire  in  a  little  town  in  Minnesota.  It  was 
a  double  occupancy,  a  fifty  foot  front  with  two  storerooms  on  the 
first  floor,  one  occupied  by  a  millinery  store  and  the  other  by  a  ten 
cent  store.  This  was  shortly  before  noon.  When  they  got  there 
there  was  a  considerable  volume  of  smoke  coming  from  this  five 
and  ten  cent  store.  The  fire  department  lined  up  hose,  both  in  front 
and  the  rear  of  the  building,  and  opened  up  without  making  an  inves- 
tigation of  the  fire.  They  did  not  open  a  transom,  they  did  not  open 
any  of  the  upstairs  windows  and  by  that  time  it  was  so  filled  with 
smoke  it  was  coming-  out  everywhere.  These  lines  in  front  washed 
all  the  stock  of  the  five  and  ten  cent  store  to  the  back  end  of  the 
building"  and  the  fellows  in  the  alley  washed  it  back  to  the  front  and 
they  washed  it  back  and  forth.  In  order  to  get  water  in  the  building 
they  had  to  break  some  windows  and  that  in  a  measure  ventilated  it. 
When  the  fire  was  extinguished  we  found  there  was  a  pile  of  burlap 
bags  in  the  basement,  a  fire  that  could  have  been  handled  with  a  two 
and  one-half  gallon  extinguisher,  but  they  made  no  attempt  to  find 
where  the  fire  was.  As  a  result  the  fire  damage  in  this  building 
amounted  to  about  $1.50  and  the  fire  department's  damage  amounted 
to  several  thousand  dollars.  Open  up.  Get  in  to  the  fire.  I  know 
an  old  chief  that  issued  an  order  that  the  first  person  that  opens  up  a 
pipe  until  he  can  see  red  will  be  fired  from  the  department.  Locate 
the  fire  and  then  hit  it  and  hit  it  hard,  as  Captain  Conway  told  you 
yesterday. 

This  question  of  ventilation  is  best  illustrated  by  this  little  sketch 
I  have  drawn  on  the  blackboard,  showing  what  will  happen  in  the 
event  of  a  building  not  being  open.  We  have  supposedly  a  fire  occur- 
ing  in  the  basement  of  a  five  story  building.  This  is  an  open  elevator 
shaft  and  I  have  attempted  to  show  you  what  would  occur  if  this 
top  loft  was  kept  closed.  The  smoke  and  heat  fill  this,  of  course,  first, 
being  lighter  than  air,  and  run  rapidly  over  the  entire  top  floor.  The 
third  floor  is  not  so  badly  involved,  neither  is  the  second  as  bad  as 
the  third,  and  the  first  floor  has  very  little  smoke  in  it,  but  if  this 
building  is  not  ventilated  by  heat  radiation  this  is  going  to  continue 
up  until  it  is  full  here  and  here  (indicating),  and  in  all  probability 
you  can  get  a  flash  from  this  fire  in  the  basement,  involving  this 
entire  floor.  Everything  has  become  so  heated  it  will  burn  with  a 
flash.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  this  floor  and  this  floor  and  this 
floor  (indicating).  We  get  that  smoke  explosion  and  the  entire  build- 
ing is  involved  almost  instantly,  a  fire  from  one  corner  to  the  other, 
whereas  had  this  vent  been  open  it  would  have  taken  it  up  there 
(indicating),  and  it  would  have  been  possible  by  advancing  in  here 
with  your  lines  to  follow  it  up  here  and  knock  it  out.  That  illustrates 
in  a  small  measure  the  practicability  of  ventilation. 

Constant  criticism  has  been  directed  against  fire  departments,  and 
sometimes   very   justly,    because    of   excess    water   damage,    such    as    I 


212 

gave  you  an  illustration  of  a  minute  ago  of  this  fire  in  Minnesota. 
While  I  agree  that  big  streams  are  very  often  necessary,  no  question 
about  that,  there  are  any  number  of  fires  that  may  be  reached  quickly 
and  are  of  little  consequence,  where  a  small  stream  is  more  effective 
than  a  large  stream. 

A  number  of  eastern  coast  fire  departments  have  adopted  this 
means ;  you  can  take  it  for  what  it  is  worth :  On  top  of  the  regular 
hose  body  they  have  fastened  an  auxiliary  hose  body,  divided  in  the 
middle,  and  in  this  are  two  lines  of  hose,  two  lines  of  one  and  one- 
half  inch  cotton  jacket,  rubber  lined  hose  with  nozzles  attached.  If 
this  apparatus  goes  out  in  the  residence  district  to  a  small  roof  fire,  in- 
stead of  coupling  up  this  big  line  with  a  pipe  they  lay  out  the  ordinary 
two  and  one-half  fire  hose  and  instead  of  putting  on  the  pipe  they 
put  on  this  Siamese  coupling.  Two  men  advance  on  the  fire,  one  tak- 
ing one  nozzle  of  this  one  and  one-half  inch  stream  and  the  other 
fellow  going  on  the  roof.  It  is  easily  possible  for  a  man  to  take  one 
hundred  feet  of  this  hose  by  himself  from  the  street.  It  is  very  ef- 
fective. I  have  seen  that  demonstrated  by  eastern  coast  cities  and 
it  has  been  very  effective.  You  can  take  it  for  what  it  is  worth. 
Out  here  I  don't  think  I  would  recommend  that,  perhaps,  but  I  would 
recommend  that  you  carry  a  small  line  of  hose,  perhaps  one  hundred 
feet  of  one  and  one-half  inch  hose,  with  a  coupling  that  could  be 
attached  for  use  in  mopping  up  a  fire  or  for  small  roof  fires. 

Then  there  is  another  piece  of  modern  equipment  that  has  been 
developed  in  the  last  few  years,  known  as  the  five  gallon  pump  can, 
an  ordinary  water  can  with  ten  or  fifteen  feet  of  hose  attached,  which 
has  a  capacity  of  five  gallons  and  is  used  for  small  fires  ;  used  in  place 
of  the  chemical  extinguisher.  In  a  great  many  instances  of  a  little 
fire  in  the  attic  one  fellow  can  operate  this  pump  and  another  fellow 
handle  the  hose.  In  grass  fires  it  is  a  very  effective  weapon.  Two 
men  can  walk  along  with  this  and  pump ;  each  helps  carry  the  pump, 
one  directing  the  stream,  and  almost  as  fast  as  you  can  walk  you  can 
put  out  the  ordinary  grass  fire  that  causes  so  much  trouble  in  the 
spring  and  fall  time.  Its  most  important  use,  in  my  estimation,  is 
that  of  an  extinguishing  agent  to  use  after  your  big  fire  is  knocked 
down,  where  you  have  a  little  fire  in  this  window  or  this  pile  of 
rubbish.  It  is  a  mean  job  to  drag  a  line  of  hose  around  and  this  pump 
can  works  most  effectively  in  that  case.  It  has  the  added  advantage 
over  the  chemical  extinguisher  in  this:  when  you  use  an  ordinary  two 
and  one-half  gallon  extinguisher,  when  it  is  exhausted  you  arc 
through,  while  with  a  pump  can  you  can  till  it  continuously.  How 
many  of  you  men  have  had  a  fire  you  attempted  to  handle  with  a  two 
and  one-half  gallon  extinguisher  and  had  it  almost  out.  but  did  not 
have  quite  enough  liquid?  With  this  pump  can  you  can  fill  it  while 
using  it.  It  is  a  splendid  piece  of  apparatus.  1  don't  mean  to  replace 
your  chemical  extinguishers  by  using  this,  because  chemical  fire  ex- 
tinguishers are  very,  very  necessary,  in  my  estimation. 

There  are  three  general  types  of  chemical  extinguishers,  the  soda- 
acid,  the  carbon  tetrachloride  and  foam  type  extinguishers,  which 
are  very  effective   when   used   on  certain  classes  of  fire.     The  soda- 


213 

acid  is  good  on  any  lire  that  is  more  or  less  confined,  due  to  the  fact 
it  requires  at  least  fourteen  per  cent  of  oxygen  in  the  atmosphere  to 
support  combustion  and  this  gas  generated  by  this  soda-acid  type  hits 
the  heated  surface,  creating  a  gas  blanket,  excluding  the  oxygen,  and 
it  must  go  out,  but  it  is  only  good  where  your  fire  is  more  or  less 
confined,  because  if  you  have  any  great  volume  of  fire  your  heat  radia- 
tion will  carry  this  gas  away  faster  than  you  can  generate  it.  In  a  roof 
fire  the  wind  will  carry  the  gas  away  faster  than  you  can  make  it. 

I  heard  quite  a  little  discussion  last  night  at  the  fire  station  in 
reference  to  proper  charges  for  soda-acid  extinguishers  and  you  do 
find  a  wide  variation  of  specific  gravity  of  sulphuric  acid  when  pur- 
chased here  and  there,  and  in  an  ordinary  forty  gallon  capacity  ex- 
tinguisher the  proper  charge  would  be,  I  think,  sixteen  pounds  of  soda 
and  eight  pounds  of  acid.  An  acid  of  a  certain  specific  gravity  would 
not  be  neutralized  by  sixteen  pounds  of  soda  as  effectively  as  another 
specific  gravity,  and  that  enters  into  it.  I  think  you  should  find  the 
proper  amount  of  acid  for  you  to  use  and  then  stick  to  it.  Don't  buy 
here  and  there.  On  the  smaller  extinguishers  buy  the  charge  from 
the  man  that  made  the  extinguisher,  because  they  know  what  it  is  for. 
It  was  designed  to  carry  certain  things. 

The  carbon  tetrachloride  extinguisher  is  very  effective  in  electric 
fires.  It  is  a  very  poor  conductor  of  electricity  and  there  is  not  much 
danger  of  getting  a  short  through  your  stream. 

Oil  fires,  of  course,  are  handled  best  by  the  foam  type  of  ex- 
tinguisher, which  is  an  improvement  on  the  soda-acid  type.  It  cre- 
ates a  mass  of  bubbles,  soap  bubbles,  which  act  as  containers  for  this 
gas.  When  a  surface  has  once  been  coated  by  this  mass  of  bubbles  con- 
taining this  gas  it  can  not  support  combustion.  Fire  can  not  live 
and  it  will  not  do  it.  I  have  seen  that  so  often  in  my  own  connec- 
tions in  Wichita,  Kansas,  where  we  are  in  the  heart  of  the  oil  fields. 
I  have  seen  foam  type  extinguishers  used  very  effectively  down  there. 
They  will  handle  oil  fires  if  you  can  get  it  to  them  in  sufficient  quan- 
tities. 

Time  is  a  very  important  factor  in  fire  extinguishment  and  for 
that  reason  we  advocate  that  all  hydrants  be  painted  a  bright  orange 
yellow.  That's  a  radical  departure  from  the  old  fire  department  idea 
that  everything  should  be  bright  red.  A  bright  orange  yellow  has 
the  highest  visibility  of  any  color  and  no  matter  whether  the  ground 
is  covered  with  grass  or  snow,  or  it  is  dark,  you  can  see  these  hydrants 
a  considerable  distance,  and  a  great  deal  of  time  is  saved  in  the  out- 
lying districts  if  you  don't  have  to  look  for  a  hydrant.  I  know  there 
is  a  hydrant  at  the  corner  of  so  and  so,  but  when  1  get  there  I  have 
to  grope  around  and  feel  for  it.  I  don't  know  where  it  is,  but  if 
painted  this  color  you  can  see  it  almost  in  the  middle  of  the  street, 
no  matter  how  dark  it  is.  Indianapolis,  I  think,  was  the  first  city 
to  institute  that — no,  Cleveland  was  the  first  city,  but  it  has  been  fol- 
lowed by  many  cities  all  over  the  country  and  is  a  very  effective  thing. 

Again  reverting  to  the  question  of  time  brings  up  the  question 
of  the  regulation  of  the  speed  of  fire  apparatus.  It  is  my  opinion  that 
there  should   be  no   set    law   or   ordinance    saying   the    fire   apparatus 


214 

shall  not  run  over  such  and  such  a  rate  of  speed.  I  don't  think  we 
should  have  anything-  of  that  sort  at  all,  because  a  piece  of  fire  ap- 
paratus responding  to  an  alarm  at  three  in  the  morning  can  travel 
with  a  great  deal  more  speed,  and  with  the  same  degree  of  safety,  that 
it  could  at  three  in  the  afternoon.  It  don't  make  any  difference  if 
you  open  it  up  to  sixty  miles  an  hour,  there  is  nobody  in  the  road.  I 
think  the  thing  to  do  in  regulating  speed  is  to  get  that  speed  as  fast 
as  possible  and  still  be  conservative  with  safety.  I  think  that's  the 
proper  thing  to  do. 

In  Topeka,  Kansas,  there  was  a  bad  wreck  in  the  afternoon  in 
which  the  assistant  chief  was  injured  in  going  to  a  fire.  When  they 
got  back  the  order  went  out  limiting  the  speed  of  the  fire  apparatus 
to  fifteen  miles  an  hour.  This  was  sent  out  about  five  in  the  afternoon 
to  all  stations.  About  seven  o'clock  that  night  an  alarm  came  in  for 
the  Thorn  hotel.  I  went  down  on  the  service  truck  from  headquar- 
ters. We  were  running  about  fifteen  miles  an  hour.  On  the  way 
down  the  chief  went  by  us  running  about  forty  miles  an  hour.  When 
we  got  there  it  did  not  amount  to  much,  there  was  some  rubbish  burn- 
ing in  the  basement,  but  it  looked  bad.  Chief  Hammond,  as  soon  as 
he  saw  it,  pulled  his  car  up  to  the  curb  and  stood  in  the  street  and  was 
giving  them  this  (indicating).  It  looked  bad.  He  forgot  about  his 
order  of  fifteen  miles  an  hour.  I  think  you  should  ride  consistent  with 
safety  and  get  there  as  soon  as  possible.  It  might  be  well  to  consider 
that  the  difference  between  thirty-five  miles  an  hour  and  fifty  miles 
an  hour  on  the  average  fire  run  probably  will  not  make  ten  or  fifteen, 
perhaps  twenty  seconds,  difference  and  it  is  much  better  to  travel  thirty 
miles  an  hour  and  get  there  than  it  is  to  attempt  to  travel  fifty  miles 
an  hour  and  never  get  there. 

I  would  advise  each  of  you  to  look  up  your  rights  while  going  to 
a  fire.  Take  it  up  with  your  city  attorney  when  you  go  back  in  ref- 
erence to  your  legal  rights.  You  will  find  the  law  does  not  always 
give  you  the  right  of  way.  There  are  certain  instances  where  you 
might  get  in  bad,  so  it  might  be  well  for  you  to  take  that  up  with  your 
city  attorney. 

Yesterday  Captain  Conway  spoke  of  a  number  of  large  conflagra- 
tions during  the  last  few  years  and  I  call  your  attention  to  the  fact 
that  with  the  exception  of  the  San  Francisco  disaster,  which  you  know 
occurred  because  of  the  earthquake,  every  great  big  conflagration  we 
have  had  in  this  country  started  from  a  trivial,  preventable  beginning, 
a  fire  that  could  possibly  have  been  extinguished  with  a  bucket  of 
water  had  it  been  available  at  the  right  tme.  Everyone  of  those  tires 
had  small  starts,  so  time  is  a  very  important  factor. 

Just  recently  I  was  in  South  Dakota  at  the  little  town  of  Redfield. 
They  have  a  progressive  chief,  a  fellow  in  the  business  heart  and  .soul. 
They  have  a  very  small  department,  four  paid  men  and  a  number  of 
volunteers.  They  have  several  pieces  of  apparatus  and  one  of  them  I 
want  to  describe  to  you,  which  is  a  Ford  truck  they  built  themselves. 
The)-  bought  a  Ford  chassis  and  built  a  body  on  it  and  in  it  they  are 
carrying  fifteen  blankets,  buckets  and  brooms  and  all  ordinary  equip- 
ment carried   on  a   salvage  truck.      The    lire   department    is   doing  this 


215 

and  we  advocate  it  where  it  is  possible  for  the  fire  department  to  de- 
tail one  or  two  men  to  go  in  and  spread  blankets  and  do  the  actual 
mopping  up.  I  think  you  will  find  it  will  be  greatly  appreciated  by 
the  citizens  of  your  community. 

It  is  not  possible  in  the  short  time  available  to  in  any  measure 
cover  this  subject  of  scientific  fire  fighting,  but  I  trust  perhaps  I  have 
spurred  you  on  to  greater  endeavor,  whereby  each  of  you  can  make 
your  respective  communities  much  better  places  to  live.  I  think  per- 
haps rather  than  listen  to  me  talk  any  longer,  you  would  like  to  open 
up  a  sort  of  round  table  discussion.  I  will  attempt  to  act  as  a  sort  of 
a  temporary  chairman  and  for  the  rest  of  the  hour  perhaps  we  can  get 
something  out  of  it.  Each  of  you  have  your  own  peculiar  problems 
you  have  had  trouble  in  solving  and  at  this  time  I  would  welcome  any 
questions  you  care  to  ask.  I  will  either  attempt  to  answer  them  my- 
self or  ask  someone  who  has  had  similar  experience  to  answer  them 
for  you. 

DISCUSSION 

Mr.  Philip,  Chicago  Heights  :  You  spoke  of  the  modern  ten- 
dency of  painting  hydrants  a  bright  orange  yellow  for  visibility.  Do 
you  find  the  tendency  to  extend  to  fire  alarm  boxes  as  well  or  do  they 
still  retain  the  fire  department  red? 

Mr.  Rogers  :  Most  of  them  are  still  red,  but  we  would  like  to 
have  the  alarm  boxes  painted  the  same  way. 

Mr.  Wolf:  A  great  many  cities  have  adopted  the  orange  yel- 
low for  the  hydrants  and  also  painted  fire  boxes  the  same.  You  know 
they  made  a  great  deal  of  fun  of  the  mayor  of  Cleveland  when  he 
started  that.  The  newspapers  came  out  and  called  it  the  Koehler 
colors,  but  it  does  increase  the  visibility ;  there  is  no  question  about 
it.  It  is  a  wonderful  thing,  especially  in  the  smaller  towns  where 
your  hydrants  are  few  and  far  between.  Of  course,  some  of  you 
today  have  got  your  hydrants  placed  the  same  as  the  larger  cities, 
others  have  scattered  their  hydrants.  There  is  no  question  but  that 
a  yellow  hydrant  is  visible  for  a  distance  about  twenty  times  greater 
than  the  red  hydrant  and  it  makes  a  big  difference  in  the  fire  box  and 
increases  the  visibility  of  the  fire  box.  Of  course,  for  the  firemen 
most  of  them  are  supposed  to  know  where  the  hydrants  are  in  their 
district  and  if  they  are  quizzed  on  them,  as  they  should  be,  they  do 
know.  It  is  a  big  assistance  in  spotting  your  pumper,  because  it  you 
spot  it  a  little  out  of  line  it  is  hard  to  make  your  connection. 

Mr.  Philip:  The  reason  I  asked  that  question  is  this:  The 
question  has  come  to  my  mind,  acknowledging  the  visibility  of  paint- 
ing the  hydrants  a  bright  orange  yellow  for  the  sake  of  visibility  of 
the  firemen,  but  I  still  question  the  advisability  of  painting  fire  alarm 
boxes  the  same  color,  for  this  reason:  Red  has  been  associated  with 
the  lire  department  for  many  years.  The  public,  who  do  not  use 
the  hydrants  but  do  use  the  fire  alarm  boxes,  spot  the  boxes  from 
their  color,  not  only  being  painted  in  red,  but  a  strip  on  the  telephone 
pole  or  post  under  which  it  is  fastened.  You  remember  only  a 
short  time  ago  the  government  took  up  the  matter  of  painting  their 


216 

mail  boxes  red  and  a  howl  went  up  throughout  the  whole  country 
because  of  the  possibility  of  the  general  public  not  taking  into  account 
the  difference  between  mail  and  fire  alarm  boxes.  To  the  ordinary 
citizen  who  only  has  to  do  with  the  fire  alarm  box,  it  seems  it  is 
a  big  question  whether  to  leave  that  fire  alarm  box  red. 

Mr.  Wolf  :  I  agree  it  is  a  good  idea  to  leave  the  fire  alarm  box 
red.  It  has  been  that  way  years  and  years.  I  think  the  idea  is  very 
good. 

Mr.  Jacobs  :  Why  not  paint  a  red  band  the  same  height  as  that 
box  and  a  yellow  band  about  six  inches  below  it? 

Mr.  Rogers  :  I  saw  that  recently  in  a  town,  but  instead  of  using 
a  red  band  they  had  a  red  box  against  a  bright  yellow  band. 

Mr.  Wtolf  :  In  Philadelphia  they  have  done  this :  They  have 
the  regular  high  pressure  hydrants  painted  white  and  the  regular  fire 
service  hydrants  painted  yellow.  Fire  alarm  boxes  are  painted  red. 
but  on  the  posts  they  are  painted  red,  yellow  and  black,  and  it. is  a 
wonderful  thing. 

You  will  notice  practically  all  the  street  car  companies  today 
and  the  interurban  cars  have  adopted  orange  yellow  as  standard  for 
the  street  cars  and  interurban  cars,  due  to  the  fact  that  they  increase 
their  visibility  and  in  trees  and  shrubbery  the  green  does  not  blend 
with  the  color  of  the  cars  and  cause  accidents. 

The  question  is  this :  The  element  of  time  in  getting  water  on  a 
fire  and  being  able  to  spot  the  hydrant  rapidly.  I  suppose  you  have 
driven  apparatus  to  a  fire,  you  are  making  all  the  time  you  can  and 
are  wondering,  am  I  going  to  hit  that  hydrant  right.  It  is  like  shoot- 
ing a  gun.  If  you  have  your  hydrant  standing  out  prominently  you 
can  spot  it  right,  but  I  think  your  idea  of  a  red  box  is  well  taken. 

Chairman  Alsip  :  Mr.  Rogers,  I  think  you  have  covered  a  wide 
scope  and  taken  in  much  territory.  We  have  now  somewhere  in  the 
neighborhood  of  twenty-two  minutes  before  the  next  speaker  and  I 
think  a  general  discussion  on  the  things  Mr.  Rogers  so  ably  covered, 
— things  which  come  up  in  our  line  every  day,- — will  bring  out  some 
facts  that  will  strike  home.  In  regard  to  the  painting  of  fire  hydrants, 
if  I  am  not  mistaken,  I  read  in  one  of  our  firemen's  periodicals,  I 
believe  the  American  Waterworks  association,  that  some  city  made 
a  test  of  three  different  colors  of  paint  for  the  fire  hydrants,  mainly 
because  the  general  public  had  been  striking  them.  In  a  certain  part 
of  the  town  they  painted  them  red,  one  part  orange  yellow,  another 
part  green  and  white.  In  the  congested  district,  or  the  place  where 
they  were  having  the  most  accidents  by  hydrants  being  struck,  they 
were  painted  red  and  in  the  outlying  districts  orange  yellow.  The  first 
check  up  in  the  district  where  the  minor  accidents  were  was  on  the 
plugs  painted  orange  yellow,  then  they  gradually  moved  these  plugs 
until  they  got  the  orange  yellow  plugs  in  the  districts  where  plugs 
were  being  struck  and  mashed,  and  at  the  conclusion  of  those  tests  the 
orange  yellow  stood  up  with  less  accidents  than  all  the  plugs.  Pro- 
fessor Ingram,  do  yon  recollect  what  city  that  was  that  made  those 
tests? 

Professor  [ngram  :     No,  I  don't. 


217 

Chairman  Alsip:  I  would  like  to  hear  from  some  of  the  other 
chiefs.  Chief  Lohmann,  I  think  you  told  me  something  in  regard 
to  the  foamite  tank  you  were  having  installed  on  your  apparatus,  which 
I  think  would  be  interesting. 

Mr.  Lohmann  :  Does  that  come  in  line  with  the  coloring  of 
fire  alarm  hydrants? 

Chairman  Alsip  :  Xo.  I  say  he  covered  so  many  things  in 
his  talk ;  that  thought  occurred  to  me  to  get  you  on  the  floor. 

Mr.  Lohmann:  About  a  year  ago  I  picked  up  one  of  the  fire 
magazines,  I  don't  remember  whether  it  was  the  Fire  Protection  or 
the  Fire  Service,  but  it  had  a  little  cut  in  there  where  there  was  a 
Ford  chassis  rigged  up  with  a  couple  of  fire  foam  tanks  constructed 
with  a  pressure  tank,  which  was  used  in  the  aviation  fields  down 
east  so  that  in  case  anything  happened  to  their  motors  they  had  foamite 
apparatus.  I  looked  into  the  thing  and  thought  that  was  a  pretty  good 
idea  for  us.  We  had  an  extra  rig  down  there,  a  big  White  speeder, 
and  I  thought  I  would  look  into  that  and  see  if  we  could  not  install 
that  on  our  White.  I  called  up  Air.  Bethlehem  and  he  came  down 
and  we  outlined  the  idea  of  how  we  could  install  a  double  forty  unit 
foamite  tank  with  a  300  pound  pressure  gas  tank  on  the  foot  board. 
We  got  the  thing  all  lined  up.  I  brought  it  up  with  the  council, 
who  thought  the  idea  was  pretty  good.  We  have  a  lot  of  oil  stations 
down  there  and  a  lot  of  factories  where  they  use  gasoline  and  ben- 
zine and  we  had  nothing  but  a  few  little  three  and  two  and  one-half 
gallon  tanks  on  each  rig.  I  had  been  aching  to  get  this  thing  in- 
stalled. Finally  the  council  thought  I  ought  to  have  a  larger  capacity 
than  forty  gallons  and  told  me  to  go  up  and  see  what  I  could  do  about 
two  100  gallon  tanks.  I  took  it  up  with  Mr.  Bethlehem  and  Mr.  Beth- 
lehem says.  "No,  I  would  not  bother  with  two  100's  to  start  with,  two 
forties  will  do  and  if  you  need  a  larger  one  you  have  room  on  that  body 
to  install  another  unit."  We  will  have  two  forties  installed  about 
the  26th  of  this  month,  the  same  as  you  showed  out  here  yesterday 
in  this  demonstration. 

The  principle  of  this  foamite  will  be  that  whenever  we  go  to  a 
fire  and  use  it  on  a  fire,  it  will  not  necessarily  mean  we  throw  away 
what  is  left  in  the  tank.  What  is  left  we  can  use  at  another  fire.  You 
don't  have  to  dispose  of  the  charge  that  is  not  used  ;  all  you  have  to 
do  is  to  shut  off  your  pressure  on  your  pressure  tank  and  what  is 
left  you  can  use  at  another  fire.  Whenever  your  tank  is  empty,  com- 
pletely empty,  give  it  a  good  flushing  before  you  recharge  it. 

I  can  not  give  you  any  more  about  it.  I  have  invited  several  chiefs 
to  come  down  to  Aurora  when  we  get  that  apparatus  installed  and  I 
will  give  them  a  demonstration  of  the  idea  I  have  worked  out  with 
our  old  White.     1  thank  you. 

Mr.  Wolf:  Are  you  offering  any  special  inducements  to  have 
them  come  down  ? 

Mr.  Lohmann:  Yes.  Mr.  Custer  is  on  one  corner  and  Axel 
Nelson  is  next  door.     (Applause.) 

Chairman  Alsip:  Is  Chief  Whalen  from  East  St.  Louis  in 
the   room?      Chief    Whalen    was    having   some    trouble    about    proper 


218 

charges  of  chemical  equipment  and,  as  we  have  a  few  moments,  sure- 
ly some  of  you  can  think  of  something  that  will  be  interesting. 

Mr.  Coffey,  Dixon :  Speaking  about  rural  fires,  I  would  like 
to  hear  some  discussion  on  the  city  fire  department  making  trips  to 
the  country  and  protecting  the  farmers.  We  are  in  a  little  commun- 
ity, possibly  3,500  or  3,600,  and  have  a  volunteer  department  with 
a  pumper.  The  pumper  was  purchased  a  little  better  than  a  year 
ago  through  a  bond  issue  of  the  city.  We  have  had  a  number  of 
calls  from  the  farmers  within  a  radius  of  three  or  four  miles  ask- 
ing our  protection  on  a  hay  stack,  straw  stack  or  something  close  to 
a  building  where  the  property  is  in  danger,  also  one  or  two  fires  in 
barn  buildings.  YVe  have  been  criticized  by  the  people  of  the  city. 
They  claim  that  they  are  paying  for  this  equipment  under  this  bond 
issue  and  the  fire  department  has  no  right  to  go  to  the  country.  I 
would  like  to  hear  some  discussion  as  to  how  to  get  around  that  so 
everybody  will  be  satisfied. 

Mr.  Hawk.  Moline:  This  is  not  a  question,  it  is  a  suggestion. 
I  represent  a  small  city.  I  have  my  troubles  in  getting  salvage  stuff 
on  my  alarm  truck.  I  carry  some  covers  on  the  outlying  apparatus, 
but  I  haven't  enough  covers.  I  have  been  trying  to  get  them  a  number 
of  years.  You  say  to  the  average  alderman  or  city  council,  "I  would 
like  to  have  some  covers."  "How  much  do  they  cost  ?"  "They  run  $35 
apiece."  "The  hell  with  that,  let  the  insurance  companies  take  care  of 
that,  take  care  of  your  fire."  There  is  a  local  bureau  there.  All  of 
our  local  agents  have  an  association  and  meet  quarterly  and  I  sug- 
gested to  them  that  they  give  me  some  financial  assistance  along  that 
line.  They  say  that  the  companies  don't  say  we  can  do  anything  of 
that  kind.  Consequently  it  runs  along.  I  believe  the  insurance  com- 
paies  in  the  different  localities  should  tender  some  financial  assistance 
in  a  case  of  that  kind. 

Mr.  Rogers  :  I  agree  with  you  and  want  to  tell  you  not  long 
ago  I  had  an  application  come  in  my  office  from  Oklahoma  City  from 
an  insurance  man  who  was  interested  in  the  salvage  end  of  the  de- 
partment and  had  taken  it  up  with  the  chief  of  the  department.  This 
insurance  man  had  taken  it  on  himself  to  see  what  steps  could  be 
taken  in  furnishing  salvage  blankets  to  the  fire  department.  I  took  it 
up  with  them  and  so  far  have  not  been  able  to  do  anything.  I  don't 
know  what  the  outcome  will  be,  but  it  seems  to  me  that  anything  that 
will  prevent  loss  should  be  furnished  by  somebody  and  the  fellows 
it  prevents  the  loss  for  should  furnish  it.  In  talking  to  your  alderman 
it  might  be  well  to  mention  this  fact,  that  eventually  the  citizens  of 
the  town  pay  the  fire  loss,  as  demonstrated  by  Captain  Conway  yester- 
day, and  for  that  reason  if  you  can  reduce  your  fire  losses,  and  that's 
what  salvage  does  undoubtedly,  if  you  can  reduce  your  fire  losses,  it 
comes  back  to  you  directly.  I  don't  know  whether  it  is  the  place  of 
the  underwriters  to  furnish  these  salvage  blankets  or  whether  it  is 
the  place  of  the  community.  I  believe  it  is  the  business  of  the  com- 
munity, but  1  don't  know. 

A  voice:  Possibly  I  might  be  able  to  offer  a  suggestion  to  the 
chief  in  regard  to  getting  those  salvage  covers.      If  he  puts  it  on  the 


219 

standpoint  of  saving  goods  possibly  the  aldermen  will  not  feel  like 
paying  for  it,  but  if  the  chief  has  as  many  shingle  roof  houses  and 
as  many  shingle  roof  fires  as  we  have  he  might  put  it  in  a  different 
way.  Quite  a  number  of  our  cities  have  these  shingle  roofs  and 
frequently  a  large  hole  is  burned  in  these  shingle  roofs  and  we  must 
have  a  cover  to  put  over  that  house  to  protect  our  citizens  against 
the  inclemency  of  the  weather  that  may  ensue  until  the  roof  is  fixed. 

Mr.  Rogers  :  I  think  that's  a  valuable  suggestion.  I  want  to 
tell  you  what  has  been  done  in  one  or  two  communities.  I  have 
known  of  cases  where  the  county  board  pays  for  the  fire  apparatus 
and  puts  it  in  service  in  the  town  where  it  was  best  available  for  the 
surrounding  country.  This  apparatus  is  bought  by  the  county  for 
rural  service,  but  is  maintained  and  manned  by  men  of  the  city  fire 
department.  It  is  used  in  both  instances.  I  think  that's  a  splendid  ar- 
rangement. It  is  manned  by  firemen  on  rural  calls,  but  does  not  de- 
plete the  fire  fighting  force  to  any  extent  in  the  town.  If  I  was  chief 
of  a  fire  department  and  a  call  for  help  came  I  think  I  would  go,  but 
there  are  two  or  three  things  to  consider  and  one  is  the  legal  right  of 
the  firemen. 

If  you  are  answering  a  fire  alarm  in  some  community  or  an- 
other town  and  driving  across  country  and  have  a  collision  and  per- 
haps kill  someone,  your  city  is  liable  for  damages  and  there  is  no  way 
you  can  get  out  of  it,  because  they  are  operating  out  of  their  province. 
You  have  to  consider  that.  Then  the  question  of  time,  keeping  a 
piece  of  apparatus  working  in  another  town  for  a  considerable  length 
of  time.  Some  cities  make  a  charge  for  the  apparatus  when  they  go 
over. 

Recently  in  Marion,  Indiana,  while  we  were  putting  on  a  drill 
school,  a  call  came  from  a  town  six  or  eight  miles  away  for  help  and 
some  thirty  men  went  over  with  the  apparatus.  The  people  in  the 
town  are  the  fellows  that  are  paying  for  that  protection,  they  are  pay- 
ing your  salaries  and  are  entitled  to  that  equipment. 

Mr.  Wolf:  There  are  certain  rules  covering  that;  sometimes 
there  is  a  charge  for  rural  service,  which  many  cities  adopted.  I 
don't  think  there  was  a  city  in  the  world  more  imposed  on  that  Cin- 
cinnati. Across  the  river  from  Cincinnati  we  have  four  large  cities. 
As  an  illustration  of  how  they  imposed  on  us.  Mr.  Griffiths  of  the 
Covington  fire  department  would  go  to  a  convention  and  they  would 
say,  "How  many  companies  have  you  got?"  He  would  say,  "Nine 
active  companies  and  fifty-two  in  reserve."  They  said,  "What  do  you 
mean  by  reserve?"     He  would  say.  "1  have  Cincinnati  in  reserve." 

He  was  overdoing  it.  We  issued  an  order  that  any  time  we  send 
apparatus  out  of  the  corporation  limits  of  Cincinnati  there  is  a  $25 
an  hour  charge  for  the  apparatus  and  $25  an  hour  charge  for  official 
supervision,  as  we  never  send  out  the  apparatus  without  a  district 
chief  and  crew.  I  think  if  your  citizens  were  complaining  about 
sending  the  trucks  out  into  the  country  that  would  be  overcome  if  you 
were  to  receive  remuneration  for  the  work  of  that  apparatus. 

If  your  brother  is  in  danger  and  in  want  and  needs  your  assist- 
ance,  1   think  it   would   take  a   pretty   hard-hearted  man  to   refuse  to 


220 

go  to  his  assistance,  but  let  there  be  a  minimum  charge  for  that  woik 
and  I  think  $25  an  hour  for  the  apparatus  and  $25  an  hour  for  super- 
visory work  is  reasonable,  and  that  has  been  adopted  by  Cincinnati, 
Philadelphia  and  Baltimore. 

A  voice :  I  come  from  a  small  town  fire  department.  We  signed 
up  all  out  outside  people  and  we  get  $75  for  going  out  there. 

Mr.  Lohmann  :  I  think  the  gentleman  from  Cincinnati  is  a 
little  wrong  on  that.  I  feel  if  my  neighbor  is  in  need  of  help  I  am 
going  to  help  him.  I  am  not  going  to  look  for  dollars  and  cents.  So 
if  there  is  an  outside  fire  in  the  country  or  anyone  of  my  neighboring- 
towns  is  in  danger  and  they  will  call  Aurora,  we  will  send  them  over 
a  company  regardless,  of  whether  they  have  got  the  money  to  pay  for 
it  or  not.  That's  my  idea  about  this  outside  help,  but  the  order 
has  to  come  from  the  mayor  or  chief  direct.  Recently  we  had  a  call 
come  to  us  at  midnight  on  Saturday  night  from  a  certain  town  in 
the  neighborhood.  It  looked  kind  of  dubious  to  me.  I  thought  there 
was  some  joke  about  it  on  account  of  it  being  Saturday  night  around 
eleven  o'clock.  I  thought  somebody  wanted  to  have  a  little  fun.  I 
did  not  send  anybody  down.  It  happened  to  be  it  was  not  the  mayor 
nor  the  chief  that  made  the  call,  but  the  party  doing  the  calling  repre- 
sented himself  as  the  mayor.  I  found  later  on  he  was  nothing  but 
a  dishwasher  in  a  restaurant.  But  they  had  a  fire  there  just  the  same. 
The  fire  was  carried  from  a  restaurant  to  the  hotel.  They  came  back 
and  criticized  me  the  next  morning  in  the  paper  because  I  did  not 
send  a  company  down  there.  In  this  same  town  only  a  few  months 
before  that,  they  had  a  call  to  a  neighboring  village  to  send  their 
company  over  there  to  give  them  help.  It  happened  to  be  a  poor 
laboring  man  whose  house  was  burning.  He  was  building  himself 
a  home.  He  had  nothing  only  what  he  earned.  His  house  caught 
on  fire  through  a  spark  from  a  chimney  on  a  shingle  roof.  They 
called  for  this  town  to  send  over  help.  They  sent  over  a  hose  cart 
with  some  chemical.  They  used  two  charges.  I  want  to  show  you 
the  brotherly  spirit  of  two  neighboring  towns.  They  used  two  charges 
of  chemical  on  this  fire.  The  first  was  charged  at  their  home  town 
where  the  company  belonged  and  the  other  was  charged  at  the  fire. 
The]/  charged  $37  for  the  two  charges  of  chemical  and  $15  for  making 
the  trip.  The  poor  man  did  not  have  the  money  to  pay  for  it  so  the 
neighbors  went  down  in  their  pockets  and  made  up  that  price.  They 
got  enough  for  those  two  charges  to  pay  for  all  the  chemical  needed 
in  five  years  in  that  village.  I  don't  believe  in  that.  If  a  neighboring 
town  is  in  need  of  help,  give  them  help. 

Mr.  Wolf:  He  did  not  ask  about  towns.  This  man  was  ask- 
ing about  fighting  country  tires.  They  will  take  advantage  of  you 
if  you  don't  charge  them.  That  fellow  might  have  got  $35  for  his 
two  charges,  but  what  about  the  wear  and  tear  on  his  apparatus;  you 
have  not  figured  that  at  all. 

Mk.  Lou. mann:  If  I  break  one  of  my  rigs  going  to  a  neighbor's 
fire  I  will  say  that  was  a  good  act. 

Chairman    Alsip:     Air.    Rogers,   anything    further? 

Mr.  Rogers:  Our  time  is  up,  gentlemen,  but  there  is  a  matter 
that  I  believe  Chief  Philip  would  like  to  present  at  this  time. 


221 

RESOLUTION  INDORSING  SHORT  COURSE 

Mr.  Philip:  I  will  make  the  matter  short.  Mr.  Chairman  and 
fellow  students,  if  I  might  call  you  that,  but  we  are  students  here; 
any  man  acquiring  knowledge  is  a  student:  While  this  is  not  an 
organization  with  officers,  etc.,  it  occurred  to  some  men  last  night  it 
might  be  a  good  thing  for  this  class  to  give  some  sort  of  an  expression 
as  to  the  benefits  accruing  to  us  in  our  communities  in  attending  this 
class,  so  some  men  got  together  as  a  self-appointed  committee  and  by 
a  great  deal  of  labor  with  a  typewriter  we  have  something  to  present 
to  you  this  morning,  and  after  reading  it  I  am  going  to  move  that 
it  be  adopted  and  I  think  you  will  be  with  me  to  a  man.  The  resolu- 
tion is  as  follows  : 

Whereas,  We  are  convinced  of  the  great  good  and  practicability 
of  the  Short  Coure  of  Fire  Prevention.  Extinguishment  and  Control; 
and 

^'hereas.  The  chiefs,  the  communities  they  represent  and  the 
industrial  interests  have  been  greatly  benefited  ;  therefore  be  it 

Resolved.  That  it  is  the  unanimous  opinion  of  the  charter  class 
that  this  aforesaid  school  be  continued  from  year  to  year  that  further 
benefits  may  result ;  and  be  it  further 

Resolved.  That  a  sincere  vote  of  thanks  be  tendered  to  Professor 
L.  H.  Provine,  Professor  C.  E.  Palmer,  Fire  Marshal  John  Gamber, 
Chief  John  Ely,  Assistant  Chief  Roy  Alsip,  members  of  the  Cham- 
paign fire  department,  officers  and  members  of  the  executive  committee 
of  the  Illinois  Firemen's  association  and  others  whose  untiring  efforts 
have  so  largely  contributed  to  the  success  of  the  course. 
Respectfully  submitted, 

(Signed)      M.  S.  Philip, 

Herman  J.  Lohmaxx, 
Samuel  Hunt, 
Otto  H.  Reiche. 

Mr.  Chairmax  :     I  move  the  adoption  of  the  resolution. 

Mr.  Rogers  :     Is  there  a  second  to  that  motion. 

Voices :     Seconded. 

Mr.  Rogers:  It  has  been  moved  and  seconded  that  this  resolu- 
tion be  adopted.  All  in  favor— is  there  any  discussion?  All  in  favor 
will  make  it  known  by  rising.  (Unanimous.)  I  shall  not  call  for  the 
negative  vote.     It  is  carried  unanimously. 

I  desire  to  express  my  appreciation  for  the  courtesies  shown  me 
here.  I  am  at  your  service  and  if  at  any  time  I  can  come  to  your  town 
and  help  you  in  any  way  with  fire  department  problems  I  want  you  to 
call  on  me.  The  Western  Actuarial  ETureau  maintains  this  service 
for  you  men  and  it  does  not  cost  you  anything.  1  thank  you.  (  Ap- 
plause.) 

Chairman  Alsip:  You  can  see  what  a  general  discussion  of  the 
subject  Mr.  Rogers  had  would  start.  If  we  had  the  time  we  would 
still  be  discussing  it. 

The  next  speaker  is  listed  on  this  program  as  J.  A.  Xeale,  but 
as  he  was  unable  to  be  here  he  sent  his  able  assistant,  Mr.  Hunter,  who 
will  talk  to  you  on  the  Care  and  Maintenance  of  Equipment. 


322 

CARE  AND  MAINTENANCE  OF  EQUIPMENT 
By  Harold  F.   Hunter,   Engineer,   Chicago   Board  of   Underwriters 

Mr.  Chairman  and  Brother  Firemen  :  I  have  been  with  Mr. 
Neale  for  the  last  year  working  on  the  fire  protection  of  Cook  county 
and  see  some  of  my  old  friends  are  here,  so  I  am  quite  sure  any 
stories  I  may  tell  don't  have  any  particular  reference  to  the  particular 
department  chiefs  here. 

My  talk  is  going  to  be  particularly  on  the  hazards  connected  with 
freezing.     The  first  subject  to  be  taken  up  is  inside  standpipes  and  hose. 

inside  standpipes  and  hose 
Much  valuable  protection  can  be  received  from  standpipes  and 
hose,  particularly  if  the  building  is  not  equipped  with  the  much  more 
expensive  and  efficient  automatic  sprinkler  equipment.  Standpipes 
have  value  also  against  exposure  as  well  as  for  interior  fires.  Four 
things  are  necessary : 

(1)  A  supply  of  water. 

(2)  Installation  of  pipes,  hose  and  valves. 

(3)  Persons  with  knowledge  and  inclination  to  use  it  promptly. 

(4)  Constant  maintenance. 

The  various  types  of  standpipe  equipment  will  be  discussed  and 
especial  attention  given  to  the  item  of  maintenance. 

There  are  two  distinct  divisions  of  standpipe  service,  namely, 
small  hose  (one  and  one-half  inch,  the  usual  size,  one  and  one-fourth 
and  two  inches  also  manufactured),  and  the  larger  two  and  one-half 
inch  size  commonly  used  for  outside  hydrant  service.  The  former  is 
altogether  more  desirable  for  general  use  inside  of  buildings  and  the 
latter  should  seldom  be  employed  ;  the  chief  exception  being  where 
the  public  fire  department  would  respond  and  use  their  own  hose  to 
outlets  provided  for  the  purpose,  or  use  the  two  and  one-half  inch 
hose  provided  permanently  within  the  building.  The  way  this  is  taken 
care  of  in  many  standpipe  installations  is  to  provide  also  in  addition 
to  the  usual  one  and  one-half  inch  standpipe  hose  outlet,  a  two  and 
one-half  inch  connection  for  use  of  the  public  fire  department.  This 
arrangement  is  frequently  required  by  the  inspection  department  hav- 
ing jurisdiction. 

Constant  water  pressure  should  be  maintained  on  these  hose  sys- 
tems, from  adequate  public  water  supply,  pressure  tank  or  gravity  tank. 
Fire  pump,  whether  or  not  automatic,  is  not  considered  a  fully  satis- 
factory primary  supply.  If  hose  is  to  be  used  at  the  very  first  stages 
of  the  fire,  it  is  important  that  the  person  going  to  the  hose  and  taking 
it  down    shall  obtain  at  once  a  serviceable   stream. 

Pressure  tanks  are  recommended  for  the  use  of  "small  hose" 
service  where  an  adequate  public  water  supply  is  not  available.  The 
automatic  sprinkler  water  supply  rules  should  be  followed  for  any  such 
special  tank  installation. 

In  buildings  where  there  is  no  provision  for  heating  water  piping 
during  cold  weather,  the  standpipe  system  can  advantageously  be  put 
on  a  dry  valve  of  the  same  type  as  is  used  for  automatic  sprinkler 
service. 


223 

Where  standpipe  is  to  be  used  by  the  public  fire  department,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  install  one  or  more  fire  department  connections 
to  which  tire  department  pumpers  or  high-pressure  lines  can  be  attached. 

For  one  and  one-half  inch  hose  the  diameter  of  standpipe  is 
generally  two  to  three  inches  for  a  building  of  ordinary  height.  If 
a  combination  standpipe  is  provided,  to  which  the  fire  department  can 
attach  its  hose,  the  diameter  should  seldom  be  less  than  six  inches, 
and  eight  inches  may  be  proper  for  very  high  and  important  buildings. 

Standpipes  are  ordinarily  located  in  hall  or  in  fire-resistive  stair 
towers  if  available,  and  so  located  that  it  will  be  possible  to  reach 
all  points  with  a  fifty  foot  length  of  hose.  One  hundred  foot  lengths 
are  the  maximum  allowable. 

The  hose  should  be  labeled  (U.  L.)  unlined  linen,  preferably  the 
one  and  one-half  inch  size.  If  for  public  fire  department  use,  the  two 
and  on-half  inch  standard  size  is  customary  with  threads  to  fit  the 
public  fire  department.  Hose  should  be  in  fifty  foot  lengths  even  if 
lines  are  100  feet  long,  and  should  be  kept  on  flat  fold  or  pin  racks. 
Semi-automatic  racks,  designed  to  be  operated  quickly  by  one  person, 
are  approved.  Reels  are  not  recommended,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of 
inspecting  hose  and  of  poor  ventilation. 

Straitway  gate  valves  with  drips  to  prevent  leakage  from  enter- 
ing hose  or  globe  valves  of  the  soft  removable  disk  type  are  advisable 
for  standpipe  service.  It  is  the  general  opinion  that  globe  valves  give 
little  trouble  from  leakage  so  that  drips  are  unnecessary.  Unlined  linen 
hose,  if  kept  dry,  will  last  indefinitely.  It  should  never  be  used  ex- 
cept in  case  of  fire.  The  practice  of  testing  it  periodically  is  decidedly 
bad.  The  advantages  of  unlined  linen  hose  over  cotton  rubber-lined 
hose  are  that  it  is  lighter  in  weight,  is  not  affected  by  the  heat,  occu- 
pies small  space,  does  not  require  testing  and  costs  materially  less 
money. 

Brass  or  iron  nozzles  are  used  with  orifices  to  fit  the  diameter 
of  hose  and  available  pressure.  For  one  and  one-half  inch  hose,  one 
and  one-half  inch  to  five-eighths  inch  nozzles  are  ordinarily  used  and 
for  two  and  one-half  inch  hose,  one  inch  to  one  and  one-eighth  inch 
nozzles  are  usually  provided.  Smooth  tapered  nozzles  rather  than 
ring  nozzles  are  recommended.  Painting  brass  nozzles  gives  some 
protection  against  theft. 

FIRE    DOORS    AND    SHUTTERS 

It  can  readily  be  seen  that  a  solid  brick  wall  is  more  efficient  as  a 
lire  retardant  than  even  the  best  class  of  door  used  to  protect  the  open- 
ings in  walls.  The  value  of  any  wall  structure  as  a  fire  stop  is,  there- 
fore, dependent  on  the  number  of  openings  and  the  protection  afforded 
by  the  fire  doors,  or  shutters  closing  these  openings.  It  is  also  evident 
that  the  door  or  shutter  designed  to  protect  an  opening  is  of  no  value 
unless  it  closes  the  opening  in  time  of  fire  and  that  its  efficiency,  when 
in  position,  depends  largely  upon  its  operative  condition  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  is  attached  to  the  wall.  Labels  of  Underwriters' 
Laboratories  on  doors,  shutters  and  hardware,  therefore,  may  be  taken 
as  evidence  of  proper  construction.     The  proper  installation  and  oper- 


224 

ative  condition  should  be  the  special  concern  in  inspecting  such  a 
closure. 

Each  door  or  shutter  should  be  subjected  to  operating-  tests  to 
determine  the  ease  with  which  it  closes,  the  accuracy  with  which  it  fits 
the  wall  opening  and  the  positiveness  of  the  latching  mechanism. 
When  weights  hold  the  door  open,  the  positiveness  of  the  closing 
mechanism  may  be  determined  by  lifting  the  weights.  Doors  which 
are  normally  closed  should  be  provided  with  a  properly  operative  door 
check.     Doors  should  not  be  wedged  or  otherwise  fastened  open. 

Operate  each  steel  rolling  door  or  shutter,  observing  whether  the 
mechanism  acts  easily  and  positively.  Note  whether  the  metal  is  free 
from  rust  and  the  bearings  properly  lubricated.  These  devices  re- 
quire careful  observation  and  great  care  should  be  given  to  their  main- 
tenance. 

Fusible  links  of  automatic  operating  devices  should  be  properly 
placed  and  in  order. 

Observe  whether  doors  and  shutters  are  free  to  operate.  Good 
clearance  should  be  maintained  between  the  door  and  goods  stored 
in  the  room  protected  by  the  door. 

Observe  carefully  whether  any  additional  unprotected  openings 
have  been  cut  in  the  walls.  If  so,  approved  doors  should  be  provided 
without  delay. 

See  that  all  metal  work  of  doors  and  shutters  is  kept  in  the  best 
repair. 

See  that  fire  doors  or  shutters  exposed  to  the  weather  or  sub- 
jected to  rust  or  corrosion  from  any  cause,  are  thoroughly  painted. 

See  that  all  hardware  is  securely  attached  and  that  the  door,  when 
closed,  is  firmly  secured  in  place,   fully  protecting  the  opening. 

See  that  the  sills,  jambs,  lintels  and  stops  are  not  in  a  damaged 
condition.  Also,  observe  whether  sills  are  of  fire-resistive  materials 
and  whether  they  extend  beyond  the  door.  Determine  whether  wood 
in  tin-covered  doors  or  shutters  is  sound.  The  presence  of  dry  rot 
in  the  wood  may  often  be  detected  by  tapping  the  outside  of  the  door 
with  a  hammer.  Rotted  doors  will  give  out  a  dead  sound.  An  awl 
test  will  reveal  the  condition  of  the  wood.  Special  evidence  is  often 
contributed  by  screws  pulling  out  and  the  caving  in  of  metal  covering, 
especially  at  the  edges. 

Readily  combustible  materials  should  never  be  stored  in  proximity 
of  wall  openings. 

Positive  instructions  should  be  given  by  the  management  to  close 
all  non-automatic  shutters  and  doors  at  night  and  over  Sundays  and 
holidays.  Night  watchmen  should  be  especially  cautioned  to  check  up 
and  see  that  this  is  done. 

The  degree  of  protection  furnished  by  wired  glass  windows  with 
metal  sash  and  frame  is  naturally  limited  by  the  fusing  point  of  glass. 
Fire  records  show,  however,  that,  under  any  ordinary  condition  where 
the  exposure  is  not  especially  severe,  such  windows  are  effective  tire 
Stops  and  their  general   installation   and  use   should  be   encouraged. 

Hie  National  Fire  Protection  association  has  recently  gotten  out 
a  tentative  regulation   regarding  the  requirements  as  to  where  single 


225 

and  double  fire-retardants  are  required.  The  various  items  considered 
are  the  type  of  construction,  height  and  area,  width  of  exposing  side 
and  distance  of  exposing-  building  from  building  considered.  The  re- 
quirements are  illustrated  by  diagrams  illustrating-  cases  where  double 
retardant  and  single  retardant  protection  is  required. 

The  more  important  items  of  maintenance  for  wired  glass  win- 
dows are  to  see  that  the  frames  and  sash  are  kept  well  painted  to 
prevent  corrosion  and  that  no  lights  of  wired  glass  are  broken  or 
badly  cracked. 

It  is  natural  to  compare  wired  glass  windows  with  standard  tin- 
clad  shutters  as  protection  against  exposure  fires  and  the  fire  records 
would  tend  to  show  that  the  many  advantages  of  the  former  offset 
the  disadvantages.  While  it  is  true  that  glass  will  melt  at  tempera- 
tures known  to  occur  in  ordinary  fire  (glass  softens  at  1500°  F.  when 
subjected  to  heat  from  one  side),  and  while  it  is  also  true  that 
combustible  material  may  be  ignited  on  the  side  away  from  the  fire, 
nevertheless  both  these  features  have  been  shown  to  be  of  relatively  lit- 
tle importance  in  actual  practice.  To  a  not  inconsiderable  extent,  this 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  wired  glass  windows  are  an  integral  part 
of  the  building  and  are  well  maintained  and  normally  closed,  whereas 
fire  shutters  are  commonly  installed  to  bring  about  insurace  rate  re- 
ductions, and  very  commonly  are  improperly  maintained,  let  alone  not 
being  regularly  closed  at  the  end  of  the  working  day. 

An  obvious  advantage  of  wired  glass  windows  over  shutters  is 
the  fact  that  they  are  not  unsightly  and  can  be  used  on  all  exterior 
openings  except  show  windows.  Also,  wired  glass  is  transparent  or 
translucent  and  fire  within  may  readily  be  seen  from  the  outside. 

STAIRWAYS   AND  ELEVATORS   AND  VERTICAL   SHAFT    ENCLOSURES 

Floor  openings,  unless  properly  protected,  will  serve  as  flues 
through  which  a  fire  may  rapidly  spread  and  involve  all  parts  of  a 
building.    They  should,  therefore,  be  thoroughly  safeguarded. 

Property  owners  should  be  particularly  careful  not  to  cut  new 
openings  (for  stairways,  elevators  or  other  purposes)  in  new  buildings, 
without  having  first  notified  the  inspection  department  having  juris- 
diction, and  following  its  suggestions  as  to  proper  safeguards. 

Stairways — In  new  factory  buildings,  stairways  in  separate  towers 
are  advised.     Of  such  towers  there  are  two  general  types : 

TJie  smoke-proof  tower — This  consists  of  a  fire-resistive  tower 
entirely  cut  off  from  the  building  by  a  blank  parapeted  fire  wall.  En- 
trance is  by  open  outside  fire-resistive  platforms  with  approved  fire- 
resistive  sliding  or  swinging  fire  doors  at  each  opening  from  platform 
to  building  and  to  tower.  This  provides  a  safe  means  of  exit,  entirely 
apart  from,  while  attached  to,  the  building.  This  type  of  stair  tower 
is  recommended  as  the  safer  and  the  better  of  the  two. 

Ordinary  stair  tower — This  is  an  enclosure  of  lire-resistive  con- 
struction, the  stairway  itself  need  not  necessarily  be  fire-resistive,  but 
preferably  should  be.  Entrance  to  it  is  direct  from  each  floor,  each 
doorway  being  fitted  with  an  approved  automatic  sliding  or  swinging 
tire  door. 


226 

Ordinary  stairways  may  be  protected  to  a  certain  extent  in  either 
of  the  following  ways:  The  preferred  method  is  to  enclose  the  stair- 
way entirely  from  bottom  to  top  in  a  tight  partition.  This  partition 
should  be  at  least  two  and  one-half  inches  thick  and  preferably  of 
cement  on  metal  lath  with  metal  studs  plastered  on  both  sides  and  when 
so  constructed  should  have  approved  automatic  sliding  or  swinging 
fire  doors  at  doorways  opening  into  each  floor.  Municipal  ordinances. 
if  any,  governing  these  matters,  should  always  be  referred  to. 

In  attaching  fire  doors  to  metal  and  plaster  partition,  care  should 
be  taken  that  special  iron  framework  be  provided  to  carry  load  and 
weight  of  door. 

When  stairway  enclosures  are  not  practicable,  a  draft  check  can 
be  provided  by  means  of  heavy  trap  doors,  counter-balanced  and  made 
automatic  by  use  of  fusible  links.  This  method  is  not  recommended, 
however,  where  it  is  possible  to  obtain  an  enclosure,  not  only  because 
trap  doors  are  liable  to  be  left  open,  but  also  because  having  operated 
in  the  event  of  fire,  they  cut  orl  from  the  occupants  what  is  often  the 
only  means  of  escape.  There  is  also  the  possibility  of  injury  to  per- 
sons, should  trap  door  fall  or  operate  at  an  inopportune  moment. 

Elevators — Elevators  are  safest  where  located  in  a  fire-resistive 
enclosure  with  door  openings  at  the  various  floors  provided  with  ap- 
proved automatic  sliding  fire  doors.  These  doors  should  always  be 
arranged  to  open  from  the  elevator  side  only  and  should  preferably  be 
arranged  so  that  the  elevators  can  not  be  run  unless  they  are  all  closed. 
The  approved  type  of  counter-balanced  elevator  doors  is  desirable. 

Elevators  should  be  protected  in  either  of  the  following  ways  : 

A  shaft  enclosure  at  least  two  and  one-half  inches  thick  of  cement 
on  metal  lath  extending  from  bottom  to  top  of  elevator  way.  with  ap- 
proved automatic  sliding  fire  doors  at  door  openings  each  floor. 

When  shaft  enclosure  is  not  deemed  practicable,  the  elevator 
should  always  be  equipped  with  automatic  hatches.  These  are  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  operate  automatically  by  the  travel  of  the  elevator  itself. 
These  hatches,  however,  are  not  practicable  for  fast  running  elevators 
and  in  any  event  are  not  recommended  except  where  shaft  enclosures 
are  impracticable. 

Other  Vertical  Shaft  Openings — These  are  generally  for  chutes 
through  which  goods  are  passed  to  floors  below,  or  for  hand  hoists. 
dumb  waiters,  etc.  They  are  most  safely  arranged  when  located  in  an 
outside  structure  thoroughly  cut  oil  from  the  building  with  standard 
automatic  fire  doors  or  shutters  at  all  openings.  Tops  of  chutes  should 
be  provided  with  weighted  covers,  so  arranged  that  they  are  closed 
except  when  goods  are  being  passed  through.  It  is  also  desirable  to 
install  dampers  at  proper  intervals  in  chutes  to  check  draft  in  event  of 
fire.  Belt  holes  through  floors  also  require  the  same  (ire-resistive  en- 
closures as  other  vertical  openings.  The  holes  should  be  made  as  small 
as  possible  and  covered  by  a  housing  of  heavy  galvanized  iron  or  two 
inch  matched  plank  or  its  equivalent.  There  should  be  at  least  a  three 
inch  curbing  around  opening  at  floor  to  prevent  water,  dirt  and  refuse 
working  through. 


227 

Night  Watchmen — Careful  consideration  should  be  given  to  the 
selection  of  the  man  who  is  to  have  the  care  of  the  property  for  more 
than  fifty  per  cent  of  the  time  throughout  the  year. 

The  man  chosen  to  fill  this  responsible  position  should  be  of  good 
character,  sober,  intelligent,  honest  and  faithful,  and  in  all  respects 
an  able-bodied  man,  strong  and  active,  with  all  his  faculties  unimpaired. 
He  should  have  a  reasonable  amount  of  mechanical  knowledge,  good 
judgment  and  be  self-reliant  in  emergencies. 

Too  often  the  position  is  given  as  a  sort  of  pension  to  an  employe, 
who,  from  age,  sickness  or  accident  has  become  partially  incapacitated. 
This  is  a  serious  mistake,  for  if  the  watchman  fails  to  measure  up  to 
the  standard  of  an  all-round  efficient  man,  to  the  same  extent  probably 
are  his  services  likely  to  be  unsatisfactory  in  time  of  emergency. 

The  watchman  should  familiarize  himself  thoroughly  with  the 
plant,  stairways,  elevators,  fire  doors,  different  lines  of  piping,  steam 
water  supply  pipes  both  to  mill  and  automatic  sprinkler  system. 

He  should  know  the  location  of  valve-  controlling  the  sprinkler 
system  and  drip  valves  to  drain  the  system.  He  should  have  the  neces- 
sary knowledge  to  start  and  run  the  fire  pump,  rotary  steam  or  elec- 
trical, also  the  location  of  fire  buckets  and  small  hose  so  that  he  lose  no 
time  when  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  them  to  extinguish  an  incipient 
fire  when  every  minute  counts.  He  should  know  how  to  use  the  tele- 
phone and  such  numbers  as  would  enable  him  to  call  assistance  should 
be  posted  near  the  telephone.  He  should  also  know  the  location  of 
the  nearest  public  fire  alarm  box.  He  should  have  sufficient  instruc- 
tion regarding  the  electrical  equipment  to  enable  him  to  manipulate 
the  switches  to  control  the  lighting  of  the  plant  where  and  when  neces- 
sary or  to  shut  off  the  current  in  case  of  accident. 

It  should  be  explained  to  the  watchman  that  his  duties  are  in  the 
main  threefold : 

First — To  prevent  trespass  on  the  property.      (He  should  al- 
low no  visiting,  even  by  acquaintances  of  his  own.) 

Second — To   discover  any   smouldering   fire   which   may   not 

have  broken  into  blaze,  but  may  be  detected  by  the  smell  of  smoke. 
Third — To    watch    for   leakage    from    water   pipes,    sprinkler 

heads  or  from  broken  fitting. 

The  watchman  should  go  on  duty  just  before  the  plant  shut-  down. 
The  practice  of  making  the  last  round  at  !  a.  m..  the  watchman  then 
attending  to  other  duties,  is  wrong.  Now  that  mill  hours  are  very 
generally  shortened,  there  is  liable  to  be  an  interval,  both  morning  and 
evening,  to  cover  which  with  proper  watch  service  special  provision 
must  be  made,  also  Saturday  afternoon-,  Sundays  and  holidays.  An 
extra  man  should  be  employed  to  cover  these  periods.  This  extra  man 
should  have  all  the  qualifications  of  the  regular  watchman  with  the 
same  authority  on  duty. 

To  insure  the  covering  of  the  entire  property  by  the  watchman, 
watch  clock  systems  should  be  provided,  either  portable  or  electric, 
stations  being  so  located  that  in  passing  from  one  to  another  in  regular 
order  the  watchman  must  enter  and  pass  through  every  room  in  the 
plant. 


228 

Watchmen's  clock  records  should  be  checked  daily  by  a  competent 
person  and  any  irregularities  in  punching  or  order  of  making  the  sta- 
tions be  satisfactorily  explained.  These  records  should  be  dated  and 
filed  to  be  available  for  examination  by  insurance  inspectors.  When- 
ever additions  to  or  changes  in  buildings  are  made  additional  watch- 
men's boxes  should  be  installed  to  properly  cover  the  addition. 

The  watchman  should  give  particular  attention  to  doors,  windows, 
skylights,  closing  all  outside  window  shutters,  seeing  that  electric  or 
gas  irons  have  been  left  in  safe  condition,  caring  for  neglected  waste 
and  sweepings  and  seeing  that  all  gasoline,  naphtha,  etc.,  have  been 
properly  removed  as  required. 

Hourly  rounds  should  be  made  nights,  Saturday  afternoons,  Sun- 
days and  holidays,  not  only  on  account  of  danger  of  fire,  but  also  in 
a  sprinklered  risk  on  account  of  the  possible  danger  of  sprinkler  leak- 
age. 

In  freezing  weather  special  attention  should  be  paid  to  heating 
of  the  several  rooms  to  prevent  bursting  of  sprinkler  heads  and  piping. 

The  watchman  should  be  properly  supported  by  the  management 
so  that  all  breaking  of  rules  or  carelessness  will  be  reported  without 
fear  or  favor. 

At  first  it  may  seem  that  the  standard  set  in  the  preceding  dis- 
cussion as  regards  the  watchman's  qualifications  and  intelligence,  is 
unnecessarily  severe,  but  when  his  great  responsibility  for  over  fifty 
per  cent  of  the  time  is  realized,  it  is  believed  that  all  will  agree  that 
every  precaution  should  be  taken. 

AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 

The  automatic  sprinkler  system  is  probably  one  of  the  best  known, 
most  widely  used  and  effective  means  of  safeguarding  mercantile  and 
manufacturing  risks  and  storage  warehouses  from  destruction  by  fire, 
and  is  so  familiar  to  you  all  as  to  need  little  explanation  as  to  its  func- 
tion and  operation. 

However,  the  efficiency  of  any  sprinkler  system  as  a  fire  controll- 
ing agent,  assuming  that  the  equipment  is  originally  composed  of  stand- 
ard materials  and  installed  in  an  approved  manner,  is  dependent  upon 
the  maintenance  of  the  system  and  it  is  to  these  various  items  of  main- 
tenance that  especial  attention  will  be  given. 

A  general  outline  of  the  procedure  followed  in  making  a  complete 
inspection  of  a  sprinkler  equipment  to  determine  the  condition  of  the 
equipment  follows :  Get  in  touch  with  the  person  in  charge  of  the 
building  ( this  may  be  the  building  owner,  superintendent  or  engineer  ) 
and  explain  the  purpose  of  your  visit,  and  in  most  cases  it  will  be  found 
that  they  will  be  very  glad  to  have  the  inspection  made  and  will  request 
that  any  defects  noted  be  pointed  out  to  them  so  that  they  may  be 
remedied  at  once.  It  is  always  advisable  to  have  the  engineer  or  em- 
ploye in  charge  of  the  sprinkler  system  go  with  the  inspector  so  that 
defects  noted  can  be  pointed  out  as  the  inspection  progresses. 

The  source  of  supply  should  be  checked.  For  a  standard  equip- 
ment at  least  two  sources  of  supply  are  required,  one  of  which  must 
be  automatic.     Where  a  gravity  tank  is  provided,  note  if  the  tank  is 


229 

full  of  water  and  valve  on  tank  riser  open,  and  the  only  sure  way  of 
determining  whether  the  tank  is  full  of  water  is  to  climb  the  tank,  or 
have  tilling  pump  started  and  note  time  required  to  overflow  tank,  as 
altitude  gauges  are  apt  to  be  inaccurate  and  misleading.  Note  condi- 
tion of  wood  of  wooden  tank  and  also  >ee  if  the  hoops  are  badly  cor- 
roded. Flat  tank  bands  are  very  quickly  destroyed  by  rusting  away. 
In  climates  where  weather  conditions  render  it  necessary,  tank  riser 
should  be  properly  boxed  and  insulated  to  protect  against  freezing, 
and  a  proper  tank  heater  provided.  In  this  locality  steam  tank  heat- 
ers are  generallv  provided,  operating  on  the  same  principle  as  the  hot 
water  tank  in  a  residence,  the  heating  element  being  a  steam  coil  and 
the  piping  arranged  so  there  will  be  a  constant  circulation  of  water 
from  the  gravity  tank  through  the  heating  chamber  back  to  the  tank. 

Where  a  pressure  tank  is  in  service,  check  up  the  quantity  of 
water  in  tank  by  opening  valve  at  top  of  column  and  glass  gauge  and 
then  open  valve  at  bottom,  allowing  water  to  rise  in  the  glass  and  show 
true  level  of  water  in  the  tank.  Note  the  air  pressure  carried,  and 
if  below  the  required  pressure,  have  the  air  pump  started  and  proper 
pressure  restored.  After  examining  the  glass  gauge  close  all  air  and 
water  valves  and  open  drip  cock  under  glass  gauge  to  drain  out  the 
water.  Examine  the  heating  arrangements  in  the  tank  house.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  gravity  tank,  see  that  all  riser  control  valves  are  open. 

After  making  sure  that  tanks  are  properly  filled  and  control  valves 
open,  start  on  the  top  floor  and  make  a  general  survey  of  the  sprinkler 
piping  floor  by  floor.  The  more  common  defects  which  will  probably 
be  found  are  high  piling  of  stock  obstructing  sprinkler  distribution; 
oversized  decks  and  fixtures  ;  broken  or  disconnected  hangers  ;  discon- 
nected sprinklers  and  piping ;  high  degree  heads  in  locations  where  thev 
are  no  longer  required  ;  small  sections  which  require  sprinklers,  but 
where  sprinklers  have  been  omitted,  such  as  lofts,  towers,  under  stairs, 
skylights,  inside  elevator  wells,  drying  and  heating  boxes,  chutes,  cup- 
boards and  closets,  unless  open  at  top;  painted  or  whitewashed  sprink- 
ler heads,  etc.  Careful  note  should  be  made  of  the  location  and  char- 
acter of  all  defects  noted  so  that  they  can  be  brought  to  the  attention 
of  the  owner  or  agent  of  the  building  for  remedial  action. 

Where  a  portion  of  the  system  is  in  an  exposed  location,  such  as 
loading  platforms,  interior  driveways,  entryways,  or  in  large  unheated 
warehouses  subject  to  freezing,  special  precautions  are  necessarv ;  this 
is  usually  taken  care  of  by  putting  this  portion  of  the  equipment  on  a 
dry  system.  In  such  cases  the  dry  valve  should  be  examined  to  ses 
if  it  is  properly  set  ;  note  whether  gauges  register  air  pressure  above 
and  water  pressure  below  valve.  The  dry  valves  should  either  be  lo- 
cated in  heated  portion  of  building  or  in  frost-proof  heated  enclosure. 
Inspectors  should  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  design  and 
methods  of  operation  of  the  various  dry  pipe  valves  lie  fore  attempting 
to  operate  and  test  them.  The  engineer  in  charge  of  the  equipment 
should  be  asked  to  test  the  alarm  device,  but  care  should  be  taken  to 
be  sure  that  the  alarm  is  not  connected  to  central  station  or  public  fire 
department.     \\   so  connected,  proper  notification   should  be"  given   of 


230 

such  tests  to  be  made.  This  would  also  apply  where  there  is  danger 
of  exciting  employes. 

When  small  areas  involving  only  a  few  heads  are  subject  to  freez- 
ing, it  is  frequently  taken  care  of  by  tilling  the  piping  in  that  section 
with  a  solution  of  calcium  chloride  to  lower  the  freezing  point  of  the 
solution  to  a  safe  degree. 

Where  direct  city  connections  are  available  at  sufficient  volume 
and  pressure  to  be  an  acceptable  source  of  supply,  all  valves  on  the  city 
connection  should  be  inspected  to  make  sure  that  they  are  open.  Indi- 
cator posts  attached  to  all  underground  valves  controlling  sprinkler 
systems  are  now  standard  practice.  They  are  quickly  accessible  in 
event  of  fire  occurring  while  water  is  shut  off  for  repairs  and  in  event 
of  sprinkler  failure  can  be  shut  off  quickly  to  prevent  waste  of  water. 

A  well-located  fire  pump  is,  under  most  conditions,  the  most  satis- 
factory source  of  secondary  supply,  as  with  ample  water  supply  it  is 
capable  of  maintaining  a  high  pressure  over  a  long  period  of  time. 
Capacity  of  pump  should  be  not  less  than  500  gallons  per  minute,  if 
supplying  sprinklers  only,  nor  less  than  T50  gallons  per  minute  if  sup- 
plying hydrants  as  well.  The  source  of  power  for  operating  pump 
should  be  investigated.  If  electric,  see  that  wiring  is  properly  installed 
and  in  service,  and  if  steam,  note  if  normal  steam  pressure  is  main- 
tained at  all  times. 

HYDRANTS 

Experience  in  the  field  has  developed  difficulties  in  the  opening 
and  closing  of  hydrants,  the  working  loose  of  interior  parts,  leakage 
(especially  dangerous  in  freezing  weather),  excessive  friction,  losses, 
failure  to  drain,  loose  nipples  and  other  defects. 

The  national  standard  fire  hydrant  covered  by  the  National  Fire 
Protection  association  specifications,  is  designed  to  obviate  these  dif- 
ficulties.    Its  characteristic  features  are : 

Liberal  area  of  valve  opening  and  barrel;  easy  curves  to  re- 
duce friction. 

Heavy  construction  throughout. 

Flanged  bolt   circle   above   ground   level,    to   permit    turning 
outlets  in  desired  direction. 

Bosses  for  bolting  on  standard  hose  valves. 
Large  drips. 
There  are  two  main  types  of  hydrant  valves.  In  the  one  termed 
the  compression  type,  the  water  pressure  holds  the  valve  against  its 
>eat ;  this  is  commonly  termed  a  dry  break,  as  even  if  the  top  of  the 
hydrant  is  accidentally  broken  off,  the  water  pressure  will  usually  hold 
the  valve  against  the  sett  and  prevent  the  Mow  of  water.  In  the  other 
design  the  valve  closes  against  the  water  pressure  and  is  sometimes 
termed  a  wet  break,  a-  a  broken  hydrant  of  tins  type  will  generally 
open  the  hydranl   wide  and  bleed  the  water  system. 

The  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  has  been  doing  a  great 
deal  of  missionary  work  in  standardizing  fire  hose  threads  and  has 
developed  standardization  tools  for  accomplishing  this  work  to  the  best 
advantage.     It  has  determined  the  range  of  sizes     within  which  hose 


231 

threads  are  capable  of  being  standardized.  The  national  ('American') 
standard  hose  thread  is  three  and  one-sixteenths  inch  outside  diameter 
male  thread  and  seven  and  one-half  threads  per  inch.  This  size  was 
arrived  at  as  a  compromise  size  among  the  numerous  different  stand- 
ards then  in  use  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston.  Massachusetts. 

All  hydrants  should  open  in  the  same  direction  to  avoid  possibility 
of  confusion  and  possible  breaking  of  the  stem  by  attempting  to  open 
in  the  wrong  direction.  In  any  event  the  direction  of  opening  should 
be  indicated  on  the  hydrant.  A  raised  arrow  (sometimes  brass  screwed 
to  top  of  hydrant)  can  be  used  to  show  direction  of  opening  and 
such  arrow  should  be  prominent  enough  to  be  felt  at  night. 

A  liberal  number  of  hydrants  makes  for  economy  and  efficiency 
of  operation  at  fires.  A  good  hydrant  costs  only  two  or  three  times 
as  much  as  a  length  of  standard  two  and  one-half  inch  fire  hose.  The 
depreciation  on  hydrants  is  much  less  than  on  hose.  The  loss  in  pres- 
sure, due  to  friction  in  long  lines  of  two  and  one-half  inch  hose,  is  a 
very  serious  matter ;  the  friction  loss  in  a  hydrant  is  almost  nothing 
by  contrast. 

The  hydrant  branch  connecting  the  hydrant  with  the  street  main 
should  be  six  inch  pipe  and  should  be  provided  with  an  auxiliary  valve 
so  that  in  the  event  of  accident  or  repairs  to  the  hydrant,  the  auxiliary 
valve  may  be  closed  and  permit  these  repairs  to  be  made  without  ne- 
cessitating shutting  off  of  a  section  of  the  distribution  system.  This 
feature  is  especially  necessary  on  hydrants  connected  to  large  main 
feeder  arteries,  as  a  broken  hydrant  on  a  large  feeder  main  would 
seriously  cripple  the  available  fire  supply  if  not  capable  of  being  closed 
off  without  closing  off  the  main  artery  itself.  Nearly  all  the  new 
water  systems  being  installed,  and  extensions  to  existing  systems,  are 
providing  auxiliary  gate  valves  on  all  hydrant  branches. 

In  locating  hydrants  with  reference  to  private  plants  to  be  pro- 
tected, care  should  be  taken  not  to  locate  them  too  near  to  buildings 
or  lumber  piles  which  at  time  of  fire  might  render  it  impossible  to 
reach,  or  where  they  may  have  to  be  abandoned  with  possible  crippling 
of  the  system. 

Hydrants  can  advantageously  be  set  on  a  block  of  stone  or  con- 
crete. Those  on  dead  ends  should  be  securely  strapped  to  the  under- 
ground piping  to  avoid  possibility  of  blowing  off  of  the  hydrant  due  to 
water  hammer.  A  large  block  of  stone  or  concrete  placed  back  of  the 
hydrant  will  minimize  this  danger.  A  bushel  of  loose  stone  should 
be  placed  around  the  bottom  of  the  hydrant  to  facilitate  drainage. 
In  clay  soils  special  drain  pipes  from  drips,  connected  to  nearby  sew- 
ers, are  often  advisable.  A  large  majority  of  cases  of  frozen  hydrants 
are  caused  by  poor  drainage  of  the  hydrant. 

During  periods  of  severe  cold  weather  hydrants  in  the  high  value 
districts  should  be  inspected  daily  and  in  many  cities  subject  to  per- 
iod- of  severe  cold  weather  this  practice  is  carried  out. 

Suggestions  for  detecting  freezing  without  actually  operating 
the  hydrant  (which  it  i>  inadvisable  to  do  in  severe  cold  weather)  are: 


232 

Sounding  by  striking  over  open  outlet  with  the  palm  of  the 
hand.  Water  or  ice  shortens  the  length  of  the  "organ  pipe"  and 
raises  the  note. 

Partial  turning  of  the  hydrant  stem.  If  frozen  the  stem 
will  not  budge. 

Lowering  weight  on  stout  string  into  hydrant.  It  may  strike 
ice  or  come  up  with  string  wet,  indicating  that  the  hydrant  has 
not  drained  properly  and  will  freeze. 

Frozen  hydrants  may  be  thawed  by: 
Use  of  steam  hose. 

Quick-lime  thrown  into  barrel  and  hot  water  added. 
Cutting  frost  with  alcohol. 

Handful  of  calcium  chloride,  which  reacts  with  water  and 
generates  heat  enough  to  melt  the  ice. 

With  the  last  two  methods  the  presence  of  fire  may  cause  ex- 
plosion in  the  hydrant  barrel. 

When  drainage  is  poor  or  ground  water  stands  at  dangerously 
high  level,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  close  the  drains  permanently 
and  pump  out  the  hydrant  immediately  after  use,  in  freezing  weather. 
In  addition  to  protection  against  freezing,  there  are  other  import- 
ant items  of  maintenance,  such  as  keeping  hydrants  clear  of  obstruc- 
tions ;  "no  parking"  signs  properly  enforced  for  public  hydrants  and 
constant  attention  for  private  hydrants ;  keeping  them  well  painted, 
greased  and  oiled ;  in  very  cold  climates  a  valve  stem  packing  of 
hemp  and  tallow  has  been  found  satisfactory ;  and  keeping  the  hy- 
drant thoroughly  flushed  out.  All  caps  should  be  kept  screwed  on 
tight  enough  to  prevent  children  removing  them  and  filling  the  hydrant 
with  stones,  sticks  and  rubbish.  In  making  flow  tests  I  have  frequently 
found  hydrants  almost  filled  with  stones,  broken  broom  sticks,  broken 
bricks,  glass,  many  of  which  were  of  size  which  would  pass  through 
the  hose,  but  would  stick  in  and  obstruct  the  nozzle.  This  reminds 
me  of  a  newspaper  story  about  one  of  my  little  villages  in  Cook  county. 
The  volunteer  department  responded  full  tilt  to  a  residence  fire,  laid 
out  their  hose,  connected  to  the  hydrant,  but  were  unable  to  get  water 
on  the  fire.  While  the  fire  burned  merrily  the  fire  boys  investigated 
and  discovered  a  large  healthy  rat  tightly  wedged  in  the  taper  of  the 
nozzle.  This  was  a  very  effective  shut-off  nozzle,  but  it  resulted  in 
the  loss  of  the  building.  I  never  was  able  to  verify  this  storv.  how- 
ever, on  a  subsequent  visit  to  this  particular  town. 

If  there  are  any  questions  I  will  be  glad  to  answer  them,  if  I 
can;  if  not,  I  thank  you.     (Applause.) 

Chairman  Ai.su>:  Mr.  Hunter,  I  want  to  thank  you  on  behalf 
of  the  assembly  here  and  knew  they  appreciated  your  very  interesting 
talk  and  hope  again  at  some  time  t<>  have  you  with  us.  Before  we  take 
up  the  next  topic,  which  will  be  by  Mr.  Wolf.  Mr.  Camber  has  a  few 
words  to  say  to  you. 


233 

PLANS  FOR  NEXT  SHORT  COURSE 
By  John  G.  Gamber,  State  Fire  Marshal 

Mr.  Chairman  and  Gentlemen  :  At  the  beginning  of  this  meet- 
ing I  told  you  some  of  the  plans  we  had  in  mind  ;  some  of  you  were 
here  at  that  time  and  others  were  not.  We  are  planning  on  publish- 
ing or  putting  out  in  book  form  the  proceedings  of  this  meeting.  They 
will  be  prepared  and  put  out  in  pamphlet  form  and  mailed  to  every 
man  who  was  in  attendance  here.  They  will  be  the  first  ones  to  re- 
ceive a  copy  of  the  proceedings.  Then,  I  am  also  planning  as  a  little 
souvenir  a  button  that  will  be  given  to  every  man  who  registered  here 
at  this  time  as  the  beginners  of  the  short  course  at  the  University  of 
Illinois,  in  order  that  when  you  go  home  or  when  you  attend  the  next 
convention  of  firemen,  someone  will  ask  you,  "What  does  that  mean?" 
You  tell  them  you  were  one  of  the  real  beginners  and  they  had  better 
come  themselves  and  find  out  what  it  is  at  the  next  meeting. 

As  I  said  before,  it  is  very  gratifying  to  me  to  see  the  attendance 
at  this  meeting  and  I  have  just  returned  from  looking  over  a  new 
place,  a  much  larger  hall,  for  next  year's  meeting  place,  where  we  can 
gather  and  have  equipment  on  exhibition,  and  I  want  to  say  that  next 
year  when  you  come  here  you  are  going  to  find  here  one  of  the  best 
equipments  for  a  drill  school  that  there  is  anywhere  in  the  United 
States,  excepting  none.  YVe  will  have  a  drill  tower  and  everything 
up  to  date  so  you  can  get  the  actual  practice. 

This  program  was  prepared  on  short  notice.  We  were  green  at 
the  business  and  the  next  program  will  be  more  evenly  balanced  in 
order  that  you  may  get  every  day  some  practice  along  the  line  of  lad- 
der raising  and  actual  work  that  you  will  get  in  going  to  a  fire.  That 
in  a  measure  will  relieve  you  some.  I  realize  that  for  men  active 
the  way  firemen  are  it  becomes  pretty  monotonous  to  sit  here  from 
early  in  the  morning  until  late  at  night  and  listen  to  some  of  us  fel- 
lows spout.  We  might  tell  you  some  things  instructive,  but  you  want 
to  see  the  actual  work  performed.     We  will  be  in  position  to  do  that. 

All  I  ask  of  you  in  return  is  that  you  go  back  home,  get  in  touch 
with  your  local  newspapers  and  tell  them  what  you  have  seen  down 
here,  what  you  have  learned  and  what  we  expect  to  put  out  in  order 
that  we  may  find  it  easier  throughout  the  next  year.  In  preparing 
for  the  next  short  course  the  publicity  given  by  the  press  will  be  a  great 
help  and  a  stimulant. 

There  are  some  cities  in  Illinois  that  are  not  represented  here. 
I  want  to  see  them.  1  want  to  see  every  city  and  village  represented 
here  next  year. 

For  your  benefit  I  want  to  add,  and  I  think  I  am  correct  when 
I  make  this  statement,  that  this  is  possibly  the  largest  attendance 
that  has  ever  been  had  here  on  a  short  course,  especially  for  the 
first  year.  We  now  have  214  registrations.  I  think  Professor  Provine 
is  somewhat  surprised  himself,  as  he  did  not  expect  so  many  active 
firemen  in  the  state  would  take  an  interest.  I  think  deep  down  in  his 
heart  if  we  had  seventy-five  men  here  he  would  be  well  satisfied 
and  feel  well  repaid  for  the  efforts  he  made.     To  be  honest  with  you, 


234 

I  did  not  think  we  would  have  over  100  myself.  It  was  uphill  work 
for  a  little  while.  Quite  a  number  of  the  chiefs  wrote  me  and  asked 
me  to  take  it  up  with  their  mayors  or  safety  commissioners.  We  did 
that.  We  were  "lad  to  do  it  and  in  almost  every  instance  where  a 
letter  of  that  kind  went  to  the  safety  commissioner  or  the  mayor,  the 
city  is  represented.  I  feel  highly  elated  to  think  that  they  had  enough 
confidence  in  what  I  said  that  they  permitted  the  chief  or  some  repre- 
sentative of  the  city  to  be  present. 

In  the  proceedings  will  also  be  a  cut  of  the  picture  that  was  taken 
in  order  that  you  may  be  able  to  show  it.  The  proceedings  will  also 
be  distributed  to  some  of  the  larger  cities  throughout  the  United  States 
in  order  that  we  may  show  them  that  Illinois  has  again  blazed  the 
way  for  something  instructive.  Illinois  never  takes  a  back  seat.  We 
are  continually  presenting-  to  the  public  that  fire  prevention  is  noth- 
ing but  a  matter  of  education,  then  why  should  we  not  utilize  the  best 
institution  that  we  have  in  the  state  of  Illinois  and  one  of  the  best 
in  the  United  States  to  start  and  promulgate  his  matter  of  education, 
not  only  among  the  public  generally,  but  among  the  firemen  them- 
selves. 

As  was  said  by  Mr.  Plant  of  Chicago,  I  can  also  say  that  the 
hardest  fellows  I  have  to  sell  fire  prevention  to.  I  will  say  about  the 
hardest,  are  some  of  the  firemen  themselves.  They  arc  a  little  skep- 
tical about  the  things  we  advocate  and  doubt  the  practicability  of  them, 
but  after  we  do  sell  it  to  them  we  have  no  trouble  going  back  and 
getting  a  new  order.  That's  what  we  want  to  do  here.  We  want 
to  sell  this  plan  to  the  people  throughout  the  state  in  order  that  we 
may  get  a  new  order  next  year  and  have  not  only  one  or  two  men 
from  a  department,  but  have  three,  four  and  five  men  and.  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  department,  have  ten,  fifteen  and  twenty-five  men 
come  here  and  take  part. 

As  I  said,  next  year  we  are  going  to  balance  our  program  a  little 
better  so  it  will  be  of  more  interest  to  you.  I  want  to  take  this  op- 
portunity, as  state  fire  marshal,  of  thanking  the  university  and  the  pro- 
fessors for  the  wonderful  help,  the  wonderful  foresight  that  they  have 
shown  in  taking  up  this  question.  Already  I  have  letters  in  my  files  in 
Springfield,  after  this  went  out.  where  Iowa,  Indiana  and  Ohio  are 
going  to  try  the  same  thing  next  year,  but,  as  I  have  said,  as  in  a 
good  many  things,  we  blazed  the  way.  We  are  going  to  show  them 
how  to  do  it  and  the  plan  is  going  out  in  the  other  states  as  the  Illinois 
plan,  so  we  will  get  some  advertisement  in  that. 

I  want  to  say  one  more  thing  and  I  think  I  would  be  amiss  in  my 
duty  if  I  did  not  say  it.  The  administration  at  Springfield,  the  state 
administration,  is  to  be  congratulated  and  thanked  for  the  wonderful 
support  they  have  given  me.  When  I  took  this  matter  up  the  first 
time  with  the  governor  he  was  somewhat  reluctant  about  the  plan, 
but  I  went  to  him  the  second  time  and  the  third  time  and  he  became 
enthusiastic,  and  if  it  had  been  any  other  time  but  the  closing  of  the 
legislature,  the  governor  himself  would  have  been  here  to  greet  von. 
I  was  instructed  by  the  finance  department  to  prepare  to  have  this 
matter  taken  down  in  shorthand,  at  the  exnense  of  the  state,  and  also 


235 

to  have  it  published,  so  that  part  of  it  should  be  credited  to  the  state 
administration  for  the  wonderful  support  that  they  have  given  in  this 
matter. 

If  I  don't  get  a  chance  to  see  you  individually  once  more  before 
leaving,  I  want  to  thank  you  from  the  bottom  of  my  heart — I  know 
many  of  you  have  come  here  on  my  account,  thinking  you  were  doing 
me  a  favor  in  helping  to  boost  this  thing.  I  trust  that  you  have  been 
repaid  and  I  want  to,  from  the  bottom  of  my  heart,  thank  you  for  the 
interest  taken  and  if  I  don't  see  you  personally  before  you  go  I  want 
to  bid  one  and  all  of  you  good-bye  and  I  want  at  the  same  time  to 
extend  an  invitation  to  you  to  be  with  us  next  year.  I  thank  you. 
(Applause.) 

Chairman  Alsip:  Before  taking  up  the  next  topic  I  wish  to 
announce  that  the  photographer  who  took  the  picture  here  the  other 
day  will  be,  at  the  close  of  the  demonstration  by  Mr.  Wolf,  out  in  the 
lobby  and  will  take  the  orders  for  pictures.  He  is  asking  seventy- 
five  cents  apiece  and  will  mail  them  to  you,  so  in  order  to  get  away 
from  the  confusion,  if  you  will  put  your  name  and  address  on  a  little 
piece  of  paper  and  with  seventy-five  cents  hand  it  to  him,  it  will  re- 
lieve congestion. 

Of  course,  you  all  know  Air.  Wolf,  who  is  to  give  us  a  demon- 
stration on  rescue  work. 

(Demonstration  given  by  Air.  Wolf). 

Chairman  Alsip:  Gentlemen,  we  will  adjourn  now  until  1:30 
o'clock  this  afternoon. 

FRIDAY,  JUNE  19,  AFTERNOON  SESSION 

M.  L.  Enger,  Professor  of  Mechanics  and  Hydraulics,  University  of 

Illinois,  Chairman 


Chairman  Enger:  We  will  call  on  Mr.  Goldsmith  for  a  paper. 
Mr.  Goldsmith  is  assistant  chief  engineer  of  the  National  Board  of 
Fire  Underwriters,  Chicago.      (Applause.) 

WATERWORKS  AND  PIPING 

By  Clarence  Goldsmith,  Assistant  Chief  Engineer,  National  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters,  Chicago 

This  is  not  going  to  be  a  paper.  I  am  going  to  give  a  little  talk. 
It  has  been  too  hot  to  prepare  a  paper  the  last  few  days. 

It  was  my  pleasure  to  address  the  Illinois  section  of  the  American 
Water  Works  association  in  this  hall,  or  some  other  hall,  in  this  build- 
ing, several  years  ago  on  the  subject  of  cooperation  between  water  de- 
partments and  fire  departments.  I  never  had  heard  of  that  subject 
being  discussed  before,  but  guess  it  must  be  a  pretty  good  one,  because 
I  have  noted  that  the  subject  has  been  the  main  issue  at  several  con- 
ventions and  meetings  since.  It  is  very  important  that  the  water  super- 
intendent cooperate  with  the  lire  department,  and  it  is  equally  as  im- 


236 

portant  for  the  fire  department  to  cooperate  with  the  water  depart- 
ment.    If  you  don't,  you  are  not  going  to  get  very  far. 

We  have_  several  types  of  water  supply.  We  have  the  gravity 
supply  and  there  are  a  few  of  those  in  the  state  of  Illinois  where  the 
water  is  collected  in  storage  at  high  elevation  and  delivered  directly 
into  the  distribution  systems  from  those  storage  reservoirs  without 
pumping.  The  whole  northern  part  of  the  state  and  the  major  por- 
tion of  the  whole  state  is  so  flat  that  we  have  to  pump  the  water.  In 
many  cases  we  have  direct  pumpage  and  in  some  we  have  combinations 
of  the  two.  We  have  water  stored  on  the  surface,  have  small  elevated 
tanks  floating  on  the  system  and  get  a  little  water  by  gravity,  but  in 
most  cases  we  are  dependent  for  our  fire  supply  on  the  capacity  of  the 
pumps. 

You  have  been  listening  during  the  last  three  and  one-half  days 
to  subjects  of  fire  prevention,  and  operation  and  methods  of  extin- 
guishment. As  I  understand  it,  you  have  covered  the  small  appliances 
for  fire  extinguishment. 

Our  fires  can  roughly  be  divided  into  three  stages,  the  fire  which 
can  be  put  out  with  the  small  chemicals,  or  perhaps,  with  the  large 
chemicals  ;  the  next  stage  is  the  fire  you  cannot  quite  handle  with  that, 
which  needs  a  dash  of  water  from  the  shut  off  line  ;  then  we  have  the 
fire  in  the  third  stage,  which  requires  several  large  lines  and  that  is 
going  to  be  our  real  problem  this  afternoon,  although  we  will  endeavor 
to  show  you  some  action  with  the  small  nozzles  where  the  dash  of 
water  backing  up  the  chemical  line  can  be  used. 

With  the  various  systems  of  water  supply  we  get  our  pressure  to 
deliver  the  water  through  the  distribution  system  so  it  will  be  avail- 
able at  the  hydrants.  In  the  smaller  towns  our  pipe  is  small  in  size 
and  the  quantities  of  water  we  can  get  are  relatively  small. 

Most  any  fire  that  has  got  control  of  a  building  needs  two  streams 
and  as  the  size  of  the  buildings  and  the  value  of  the  contents  increase, 
we  need  more  water  until  we  get  up  to  the  large  city  block  where  we 
require  a  concentration  of  12,000  gallons  a  minute.  I  am  not  going  to 
deal  much  with  that  large  city  problem  because  those  problems  are, 
to  my  mind,  relatively  easier  than  the  problems  that  the  firemen  in  the 
small  cities  and  towns  have  to  deal  with.  They  have  got  to  utilize 
what  they  have  and  get  the  most  out  of  it,  both  men  and  equipment, 
and  I  hope  we  shall  be  able  to  give  you  several  valuable  demonstrations 
of  the  utilization  of  comparatively  weak  water  pressures,  and  be  able 
to  show  you  some  fairly  good  streams. 

Most  of  our  water  systems  are  satisfied  to  maintain  a  domestic 
pressure  of  thirty-five  to  fifty  pounds.  In  case  of  fire  the  pressure 
is  frequently  raised  and  you  get  your  fire  streams  by  directly  connecting 
to  the  hydrant.  In  other  cities  where  the  pressure  is  not  raised  you 
are  dependent  on  developing  the  lire  stream  from  gasoline  automobile 
pumpers.  Perhaps,  in  the  smaller  city,  it  may  still  he  economical  to 
raise  the  fire  pressure,  but  as  the  size  of  the  city  increases.  I  don't  be- 
lieve that  can  be  borne  out  today  as  the  most  economical  method,  and 
surely  not  the  most  reliable  method.  It'  we  are  going  to  raise  the 
pressure  on  the  system,  we  encounter  many  difficulties,  most  of  which 


237 

we  overcome,  but  once  in  a  while  we  don't  ;  for  instance,  if  thirty-five 
pounds  is  carried  and  we  want  to  increase  the  pressure  to  seventy- 
five  pounds,  it  means  the  attendant  must  be  prepared  and  present  at 
the  pumping  station,  and  we  must  have  some  reliable  way  of  receiving 
our  alarm  and  transmitting  it  to  the  pumping  station.  If  dependent 
on  raising  the  pressure,  and  it  is  not  raised,  we  cannot  develop  our 
fire  stream.  Raising  pressure  at  the  pumping  station  always  involves 
having  reserve  equipment  or  power  in  some  form  or  other. 

In  some  pumping  stations  we  have  centrifugal-motor-operated 
pumps  designed  to  operate  at  thirty-five  or  forty  pounds  domestic  pres- 
sure. If  we  want  seventy  or  eighty  pounds  pressure  we  put  another 
pump  in  series.  If  we  have  only  two  such  pumps  in  our  pumping 
station,  and  one  of  these  is  out  of  service,  we  can't  raise  the  pressure. 
When  we  do  raise  the  pressure,  we  stand  a  good  chance  of  blowing  out 
a  pipe  in  the  system  and  it  may  result  in  the  complete  failure  of  our 
supply.  It  means  also  that  we  will  have  a  marked  increase  in  the  do- 
mestic consumption  at  the  time  we  raise  the  pressure.  If  we  raise  the 
pressure  from  fifty  to  100  pounds,  we  will  be  using  half  as  much  more 
water  for  domestic  use.,  after  we  raise  the  pressure,  as  we  were  before, 
and  if  the  supply  is  limited,  or  the  size  of  the  mains  is  limited,  or  the 
pumping  capacity  is  limited,  it  means  there  will  be  not  much  water  left 
for  righting  a  fire.  When  we  realize  that  the  motor  pumper  of  today 
is  a  very  reliable  piece  of  apparatus,  has  an  excellent  service  record 
over  a  period  of  years,  and  that  we  can  develop  any  pressure  we  want 
to  at  any  point  we  want  to,  why  not  get  the  motor  pumper  and  be 
satisfied  with  the  ordinary  normal  domestic  pressure  from  our  water 
system  ? 

In  a  water  system  the  fireman's  first  thought,  naturally,  is  of  the 
fire  hydrant,  because  that's  where  he  draws  the  water.  The  water 
department  in  most  cases,  and  I  believe  properly  so,  should  have  charge 
of  the  care  and  maintenance  of  the  fire  hydrants  themselves,  and  if 
its  work  is  properly  done,  the  fireman  is  going  to  be  able  to  go  to  a 
hydrant  and  draw  water  whenever  he  wants  to. 

When  the  fireman  finds  a  hydrant  where  he  cannot  get  water  or 
when  he  gets  through  using  one  which  he  cannot  close,  he  should  let 
the  superintendent  of  the  water  works  know  the  fact,  and  he  might  go 
further  and  see  that  the  remedy  is  made.  It  may  be  you  have  had  a 
fire  a  year  or  so  ago  at  a  certain  point  in  your  town,  and  you  were  able 
to  get  a  couple  of  good  hose  streams  off  the  hydrant ;  you  remember 
that  very  well,  but  then,  you  had  a  little  fire  there  last  week,  you  went 
down  and  put  on  your  hose  line  and  got  a  very  feeble  stream,  but  for- 
tunately you  got  the  fire  out  with  that  stream  or  with  the  chemical. 
You  should  immediately  call  the  waterworks  superintendent's  atten- 
tion to  that  fact,  and  find  out  the  trouble. 

I  was  talking  yesterday  to  Air.  Hunter,  who  talked  to  you  this 
morning,  and  he  said  he  made  a  test  in  a  town  and  found  a  very  small 
quantity  of  water  available  and  that  the  pressure  dropped  off  almost 
to  nothing  when  they  opened  the  hydrant.  They  went  over  the  line 
leading  to  that  particular  locality  and  found  the  point  where  there 
was  apparently  some  stoppage  in  the  pipe;  a  concrete  road  was  built 


238 

over  the  line,  and  the  valve  box  was  covered  up.  and  the  valve  was 
found  nearly  closed.  He  opened  the  valve  and  got  a  very  satisfactory 
quantity  of  water.  That's  not  an  unusual  case.  In  our  inspection 
work  we  find  numerous  closed  valves. 

I  was  in  the  city  of  Boston  for  four  years  after  1910,  and  we 
found  150  valves  of  twelve  inches  and  larger  in  that  city  closed.  The 
city  had  gone  to  the  expense  of  putting  in  the  large  pipes,  but  the  closed 
valves  cut  the  capacity  practically  in  two.  I  could  cite  a  hundred 
cases  where  we  have  found  closed  valves  materially  affecting  the  sup- 
ply. They  ought  not  to  be  closed,  but  they  will  get  closed  in  spite  of 
all  human  precaution.  Where  you  find  cases  where  the  supply  was 
good  and  has  dropped  off,  get  after  it. 

I  had  a  case  about  ten  years  ago  in  the  city  of  Omaha.  We  went 
to  draw  some  water  on  a  dead  end,  an  eight-inch  main,  a  main  of 
ample  size  apparently,  but  could  not  get  more  than  two  or  three  hun- 
dred gallons  of  water  a  minute.  It  happened  in  that  case  there  was 
small  consumption  on  the  end  of  the  line,  and  as  unriltered  Missouri 
river  water  was  the  source  of  supply,  the  main  was  about  four-fifths 
filled  with  very  fine  mud.  They  blew  out  the  mud,  and  the  supply 
was  practically  normal. 

I  have  another  case  in  mind  of  a  dead  end  line  of  six-inch  pipe. 
At  one  time  they  got  two  good  hose  streams  from  it,  but  in  about  a 
year  they  could  hardly  get  a  drop  of  water  out  of  it.  When  they 
poured  one  of  the  lead  joints  in  that  main  the  lead  ran  down  that 
pipe  in  streamers.  They  poured  the  lead  in  until  they  got  the  joint 
full ;  seventy  or  eighty  pounds  of  lead  went  into  the  pipe.  The 
velocity  of  the  water  rolled  those  lead  streamers  up  so  that  they  formed 
a  ball  of  lead  there  and  finally  practically  stopped  up  the  pipe.  Of 
course,  such  cases  as  that  are  very,  very  few,  but  they  are  liable  to 
be  very  serious  when  they  do  occur. 

Now,  we  always  have  a  question  of  hose  threads.  In  many  of 
our  larger  cities  and  towns,  in  going  over  the  hose  threads  and  hydrants 
with  the  fire  departments  and  on  the  connections  where  there  is  private 
equipment,  almost  invariably  we  find  some  threads  off  size,  some  so 
badly  off  size  that  they  will  not  fit  at  all.  There  is  a  standardization 
movement  on  now.  The  standard  thread  has  been  adopted  by  all  the 
leading  engineering  societies,  and  in  connection  with  the  thread  stand- 
ardization, the  fire  marshals  throughout  the  several  states  are  sup- 
porting the  movement.  It  is  really  becoming  more  important  now 
since  the  state  of  Illinois  got  hard  roads.  Until  recently  it  did  not 
make  much  difference  whether  or  not  your  threads  fitted  the  hydrants 
of  the  neighboring  towns,  because  you  could  not  get  there  in  time 
to  do  any  good,  but  today  with  the  hard  roads  and  the  pumper,  you 
can  cover  distances  which  ten  years  ago  you  would  not  have  thought 
of  covering.  If  you  get  into  a  town  and  your  threads  don't  fit,  you 
are  not  going  to  be  of  much  assistance. 

As  I  said  before,  it  is  the  fellow  in  the  small  city  and  town  that 
has  to  use  his  wits.  If  you  are  in  a  town  and  your  threads  don't  lit 
you  can  get  one  length  of  hose  from  that  town  and  get  the  burst-hose 
jacket  and  make  a  coupling.     If  you  have  a  pumper  and  want  to  utilize 


239 

what  water  there  may  be.  you  can  get  a  barrel  with  a  hole  in  the  side, 
put  the  pump  suction  in  the  barrel  and  have  a  man  attend  the  hydrant. 
There  is  always  some  way  out  of  the  trouble,  and  we  can  get  the 
water  if  we  try. 

I  went  with  the  city  of  Boston's  fire  department  to  the  conflagra- 
tion that  destroyed  the  city  of  Salem.  Massachusetts.  We  got  there 
before  the  fire  reached  its  height.  Our  suction  couplings  would  not 
fit  the  Salem  hydrant  threads,  but  we  had  a  master  mechanic  of  the 
department  who  went  with  us,  and  he  got  water  as  long  as  there  was 
water  in  those  mains  by  using  his  wits.  That's  all  you  have  to  do 
when  up  against  it — utilize  what  you  have. 

The  care  and  inspection  of  the  hydrant  of  course  is  up  to  the 
water  department,  but  perhaps  the  water  department  does  not  take 
as  great  interest  in  that  branch  of  the  work  as  it  ought  to.  The  water 
superintendent,  rightfully  so.  is  mainly  interested  in  furnishing  good, 
pure  water  for  domestic  consumption.  He  is  generally  pretty  busy 
in  a  smaller  place  and  probably  is  called  upon  to  undertake  more 
trades  in  twenty-four  hours  than  almost  any  other  man  and  is  liable 
to  forget  all  about  the  fire  hydrants.  It  is  well  enough  for  the  firemen 
to  talk  it  over  with  the  superintendent  and  if  he  hasn't  time  to  do  the 
work  and  wants  you  to  take  hold  and  inspect  the  hydrants,  go  ahead 
and  do  it.  The  hydrants  ought  to  be  inspected.  That  should  con- 
sist of  going  to  the  hydrant  and  taking  the  caps  off  to  see  that  they 
work  freely  ;  if  they  don't  they  should  be  greased.  See  if  the  hydrant 
has  any  water  in  the  barrel.  (It  probably  will  not  in  the  fall  of  the 
year  as  the  ground  is  liable  to  be  dry.)  If  it  has  not,  then  open  the 
hydrant  and  blow  it  out.  When  you  close  the  hydrant,  notice  whether 
it  closes  easily,  is  tight  and  drains  properly.  A  hydrant  frozen  up 
is  really  worse  than  no  hydrant  at  all,  for  if  you  lay  your  line  out 
and  have  a  frozen  hydrant,  you  have  lost  valuable  time.  With  a  motor 
pumper  it  is  a  mighty  good  thing  to  get  a  hydrant  thawing  device,  for 
you  are  bound  to  find  some  frozen  hydrants.  Sometimes  in  the  win- 
ter we  find  five  per  cent  of  the  hydrants  frozen,  so  we  cannot  get  water. 
When  we  had  the  old  steam  fire  engine  we  could  do  a  little  thawing 
with  it.  but  now  it  is  not  economical  for  a  small  city  or  town  to  main- 
tain a  boiler  for  thawing  purposes  when  several  practical  devices  are 
available  which  can  be  attached  to  the  pumper.  You  can  readily  see 
it  is  well  for  you  to  know  about  the  maintenance  and  use  of  hydrants. 

We  always  believe  it  is  desirable  where  we  have  two-outlet  hy- 
drants for  the  firemen  to  carry  independent  gates  and  put  one  gate 
on  each  outlet.  One  gate  should  be  carried  on  the  hose  line,  and  the 
other  gate  tied  with  a  strap  to  the  first  gate  so  that  those  two  gates 
can  be  readily  available  to  put  on  the  hydrant.  In  case  you  want  to 
lay  in  a  second  line,  you  can  lay  it  in  without  shutting  the  hydrant 
down.  Where  you  have  a  relatively  low  pressure,  thirty  or  forty 
pounds,  you  may  start  out  and  think  you  can  catch  that  fire  without 
a  large  line,  but  if  the  fire  gets  away,  you  can  drop  your  chemical  line, 
come  back,  and  put  your  pumper  on  the  gated  outlet  and  then  the 
only  delay  you  have  in  delivering  water  is  to  shut  down  the  gate  valve 


240 

on  the  hose  line  and  shift  the  line  over  to  the  pump,  which  will  not 
take  over  a  half  a  minute. 

The  question  of  putting  gates  on  the  hydrants  is  discussed ;  some- 
times they  tell  me  that  it  takes  too  much  time.  Stop  and  analyze  it. 
Why  should  we  economize  in  a  place  that  does  not  do  any  particular 
good?  In  most  fires  the  hydrant  man  can  get  off,  take  the  two  caps 
off,  and  put  the  gate  on  the  hose  line  and  get  his  hydrant  open  before 
they  are  ready  for  water  at  the  other  end  of  the  line.  If  it  is  some 
old  woodshed  at  the  back  of  a  house,  and  you  have  no  entrance  to 
make,  you  might  have  to  wait  two  or  three  seconds  for  your  hydrant 
man.  This  question  of  the  time  required  is  unimportant  as  you  will 
find  if  you  analyze  the  maneuver. 

Along  the  same  line,  we  do  not  believe  that  the  soft  suction  is  a 
desirable  thing  to  use  on  pumpers.  If  it  is  carried  on  the  pumper  at 
all,  you  are  going  to  use  it,  as  it  is  a  little  easier  from  the  manual 
standpoint  to  put  the  soft  suction  on.  Even  in  the  larger  cities  we 
are  liable  to  get  a  fire  where  we  have  to  concentrate  large  quantities 
of  water  and  pull  the  pressure  down  on  the  mains  to  zero  or  below,  and 
then  the  soft  suction  will  collapse.  In  outlying  districts  you  are  liable 
to  get  on  dead  ends  where  you  will  pull  the  pressure  down  to  zero. 
There  are  very  few  times  when  the  operator,  if  the  work  of  the  com- 
pany is  properly  allocated,  cannot  get  the  stiff  suction  on  the  hydrant, 
without  loss  of  time,  and  then  he  can  suck  the  water  out  of  the  mains 
as  long  as  there  is  any  to  suck  out.  So  stick  to  the  hard  suction 
because  that  is  not,  as  I  say,  a  governing  feature  for  determining  the 
time. 

In  our  inspections  we  run  every  engine  company  out  of  its  house, 
let  it  take  the  nearest  hydrant,  take  off  the  hydrant  caps,  put  on  the 
hard  suction,  lay  200  feet  of  hose,  attach  a  nozzle,  and  raise  the  pres- 
sure to  100  pounds  on  the  pump,  and  any  company  that  is  well  trained 
can  do  this  in  just  about  sixty  seconds.  So  you  are  not  losing  very 
much  time  and  you  would  not  save  any  time  if  you  did  not  have  to 
make  your  connection  to  the  hydrant  with  a  hard  suction. 

Analyze  all  fire  department  maneuvers  in  this  way  and  find  what 
is  the  particular  portion  of  the  maneuver  taking  the  longest  time, 
then  see  if  you  can  divide  up  your  men  differently  so  as  to  cut  down 
the  time.  We  know  this  can  be  done  from  the  records  of  city  depart- 
ments. The  city  of  Milwaukee  has  a  board  of  six  engineers  review 
their  standard  maneuvers  and  change  them  from  year  to  year,  so  the 
time  may  be  cut  down.  Some  man  in  the  company  or  some  captain  or 
some  officer  finds  a  little  easier  way  to  do  some  particular  thing.  It 
is  like  watching  Mr.  Wolf  this  morning  lift  a  man  off  of  the  floor.  He 
did  it  with  no  physical  exertion  at  all.  We  can  perform  all  these  fire 
department  maneuvers  with  a  minimum  amount  of  exertion  if  we  pay 
attention  and  study  them. 

There  is  one  thing  that  is  very  important  for  the  fireman  to 
remember,  because  the  fireman  is  in  supreme  command  at  the  time 
of  a  fire,  he  is  boss  of  everything,  and  that  is  the  capacity  of  the 
water  system  from  which  water  is  being  drawn.  1  don't  know  that 
this  particular  subject   was  ever  more   forcibly  brought  to  one's  atten- 


241 

tion  than  it  was  about  ten  years  ago  at  Coney  Island,  when  a  sweep- 
ing fire  occurred.  They  had  a  separate  lire  main  system  of  a  capacity 
of  some  4,000  or  5,000  gallons.  The  capacity,  however,  is  immaterial, 
for  they  put  on  hose  lines  to  take  about  twice  the  capacity  of  the 
system.  The  result  was  there  was  no  stream  from  that  system  that 
was  of  any  effect  at  all,  they  were  all  so  weak.  It  is  better  to  have 
one  good  stream  than  two  poor  streams,  or  two  good  streams  than 
four  poor  streams.  The  onlooker  may  see  the  water  coming  out  of 
the  nozzle,  but  it  is  not  putting  the  fire  out,  so  don't  try  to  overload 
your  system.  You  can  determine,  or  correctly  find  out,  what  the 
capacity  of  your  system  is  in  the  mercantile  district,  where  the  great- 
est values  are.  Today,  the  Illinois  Inspection  Bureau  classifies  the 
protection  in  all  protected  towns  in  the  state,  and  in  the  course  of 
that  classification,  they  measure  the  water  they  can  get  out  of  the  hy- 
drants. The  engineer  who  is  doing  that  work  secures  his  information 
from  the  members  of  the  fire  department  and  the  water  department. 
In  your  town  if  they  find  they  can  get  750  gallons  at  sixty  pounds 
pressure,  if  that's  the  pressure  you  need,  don't  try  to  use  more  than 
three  one  and  one-eighth  inch  streams.  If  you  do,  you  will  draw  the 
pressure  in  the  mains  down  and  not  get  the  powerful  streams  you 
may  need.  You  may  have  a  four  inch  dead  end  and  you  can  get  one 
good  one-inch  stream,  but  don't  try  to  get  two  streams. 

I  used  to  run  with  a  volunteer  department  about  thirty  years 
ago,  and  we  used  to  borrow  horses  from  a  close-by  machine  shop.  We 
had  a  fire  one  night  and  had  to  run  up  a  long  hill.  One  of  the  fel- 
lows named  Steve  said,  ''Boys,  put  on  two  collars  on  those  horses, 
that's  a  steep  hill."  You  are  going  to  do  as  much  good  trying  to  get 
two  streams  where  there  is  not  pressure  enough  to  supply  them  as 
Steve  did  by  putting  two  collars  on  the  horses.     It  will  not  work. 

Where  you  have  a  pumper  you  can  perform  lots  more  efficient 
work.  You  may  have  sixty  pounds  pressure  in  your  mercantile  dis- 
trict and  say  you  have  a  350-gallon  pumper.  I  would  not  buy  a  hose 
wagon  without  a  pump  of  at  least  350  gallons  capacity,  although  I 
might  have  sixty  or  seventy  pounds  pressure,  for  there  is  always  some 
place  where  the  pressure  does  not  hold  up  and  you  will  need  that 
pump  to  give  one  good  stream.  When  you  get  on  the  end  of  a  four- 
inch  main,  suppose  you  can  get  only  ISO  gallons  of  water,  put  your 
pumper  on,  and  select  your  nozzle  with  a  three-quarter  inch  or  seven- 
eighths  inch  tip  so  you  will  get  a  good  stiff  stream.  We  are  going 
to  show  you  later  how  you  can  utilize  such  small  quantities  of  water 
and  develop  one  good  stream. 

In  a  city  south  of  the  Ohio  river,  last  year  the  mayor  got  into  a 
considerable  discussion  about  a  loss  they  had  on  the  edge  of  town. 
They  had  two  pumpers  each  of  350-gallons  capacity.  I  got  them  to 
lay  out  the  hose  as  it  was  laid  out  at  the  time  of  the  fire,  and  they  were 
not  able  to  throw  water  over  the  sill  of  the  window  on  the  first  floor 
of  the  brick  building  destroyed.  We  found  out  how  much  water  we 
could  get  from  the  hydrant,  we  put  on  the  proper  nozzles,  and  got  two 
very  nice  streams.  The  mayor  was  very  much  surprised.  The  chief 
was  a  new  appointee,  and  at  previous  fires  he  had  been  able  to  get 


212 

fair  streams  direct  from  hydrants,  but  it  just  happened  at  this  place 
it  could  not  be  done. 

You  men  ought  to  study  the  water  distribution  system.  Where 
you  have  a  volunteer  department,  if  you  practice,  go  to  some  of  the 
weak  places  and  find  whether  you  can  get  one  good  stream  or  two 
good  streams,  or  if  you  cannot  get  any  at  all.  Find  out  what  you  can 
do  with  your  pumper  and  what  size  nozzle  to  use. 

We  talk  about  the  hydraulics  of  fire  streams,  and  it  is  very  true 
we  can  make  some  close  calculations  on  the  pressure  and  quantity  of 
water  discharged  through  hose  lines,  but  fire-fighting,  as  yet.  is  not 
an  exact  science.  In  actual  practice  we  don't  know  within  ten  per 
cent  of  how  much  water  Ave  need  to  extinguish  fire  in  any  given 
building,  and  we  cannot  tell  the  friction  loss  in  the  hose  lines  within 
a  few  pounds,  but  you  can  make  rough  estimates  of  the  pressure  you 
ought  to  carry  at  the  pumper  to  get  moderately  efficient  fire  streams. 
It  does  not  make  much  difference  whether  you  get  sixty  or  seventy 
pounds  on  an  outside  line,  and  you  don't  want  as  much  on  an  inside 
line,  but  it  is  well  to  know  how  to  get  a  fairly  satisfactory  stream. 
The  best  way  to  do  is  to  make  experimental  layouts  and  actually  see 
the   result  yourself. 

For  those  of  you  who  will  be  interested  in  studying  the  subject 
further,  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  has  a  little  book 
called  the  Red  Book.  It  is  entitled  "Fire  Engine  Tests  and  Fire 
Stream  Tables."  If  any  fireman  is  interested  enough  to  write  to  us 
and  say,  "Send  me  a  Red  Book,"  shall  be  glad  to  do  it.  We  did 
not  bring  them  down  here  and  give  them  out  because  it  is  a  question 
of  psychology.  Nobody  cares  for  anything  that  is  free,  but  if  you 
care  to  write  about  it,  we  shall  send  it  to  you.  We  want  everybody 
to  have  them,  but  we  only  give  them  on  request,  and  if  any  of  you 
are  interested  in  receiving  a  copy  of  the  Red  Book,  we  shall  be  glad 
to  give  it  to  you.  This  Red  Book  contains  tables  showing  the  loss 
through  two  and  one-half,  three,  and  three  and  one-half -inch  hose 
when  delivering  various  quantities  of  water.  It  gives  the  quantity  of 
water  in  gallons  discharged  with  different  pressures  at  the  nozzle.  For 
instance,  we  will  take  a  one-inch,  smooth  nozzle,  if  we  have  300  feet 
of  hose  out  and  we  want  to  maintain  forty  pounds  on  the  nozzle, 
we  have  got  to  have  sixty-eight  pounds  at  the  pumper  to  do  it.  It 
also  gives  you  directions  how  to  work  out  any  of  these  problems.  If 
you  work  out  a  lot  of  these  problems  and  discuss  them  around  the 
table  at  night,  you  are  going  to  develop  your  judgment.  You  will 
be  able  to  tell  the  man  at  the  pumper  to  give  you  !<><>  pounds,  and  you 
know  that's  going  to  give  a  reasonable  fire  stream,  considering  the 
size  of  the  nozzle  and  considering  the  length  of  the  line.  You  can  do 
that  by  studying  beforehand. 

The  city  of  Detroit  has  a  little  brass  plate  on  each  pumper  which 
.shows  the  proper  starting  pressure  for  different  lengths  of  hose  lines, 
and  different  sized  nozzles  required  to  deliver  a  good  fire  stream.  If 
lie  wants  a  different  stream,  the  officer  can  say.  "dive  us  fifteen  or 
twenty  pounds  more."  and  if  the  men  are  having  trouble  holding  the 
line,  he  can  ask  for  fifteen  or  twenty  pounds  less. 
# 


2V3 

In  the  smaller  department  it  is  just  as  important  for  the  fireman 
to  know  how  to  develop  an  effective  stream  as  it  is  in  a  larger  city 
department.  The  method  is  simple,  for  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
formula  in  the  book  is  not  based  on  any  scientific  facts  that  I  know 
anything  about.  I  have  not  been  able  to  find  any  mathematician  that 
could  tell  me  what  they  were  based  on.  I  believe  they  were  first  de- 
veloped by  a  first-grade  fireman  of  Xew  York's  fire  department. 
They  are  simple  propositions  and  things  you  can  remember  after  you 
study  them.  There  are  several  city  departments  where  probably  sixty 
per  cent  of  the  first-grade  firemen  in  the  departments  could  figure  all 
around  me  in  calculating  hose  lines,  nozzles  and  hydrant  pressure. 
There  is  nothing  difficult  about  it. 

The  city  of  Boston,  several  years  ago.  asked  a  division  engineer 
to  give  a  talk  before  the  fire  department.  The  division  engineer  said 
something  about  "2Q  square  plus  2Q,"  and  the  chief  went  up  and 
tapped  him  on  the  shoulder  and  said.  "It  is  all  right.  Mac,  but  we 
don't  want  that  square  stuff."  Mac's  method  of  stating  it  was  wrong. 
He  should  not  have  said  it  that  way,  for  he  made  a  mystery  of  ii.  As 
I  say,  I  shall  be  glad  to  send  these  Red  Books  to  any  or  all  of  you.  and 
you  will  be  surprised  after  making  a  few  calculations  when  you  take 
out  your  pumper  and  lay  hose  lines  to  find  out  how  close  your  calcu- 
lation will  come. 

There  is  always  the  chance  of  a  failure  of  the  water  system. 
Particularly  for  our  smaller  water  systems  a  fireman  ought  to  consider 
what  he  would  do  in  case  of  a  failure,  before  it  happens.  If  you  can- 
not work  the  thing  out  when  it  is  quiet,  and  there  is  no  emergency, 
you  surely  cannot  do  as  good  a  job  if  it  comes  on  you  like  a  thief 
in  the  night.  Each  of  you  should  imagine  that  the  water  system  in 
your  home  town  failed  for  an  hour  or  even  for  a  half  a  day.  What 
steps  are  you  going  to  take?  How  are  you  going  to  utilize  what  water 
may  be  around  and  what  are  you  going  to  plan  to  do,  so  if  the  emerg- 
ency arises  you  are  going  to  be  able  to  devote  your  entire  energy  in 
directing  your  department  and  using  the  equipment  you  have  and  not 
having  to  think  out  some  scheme  to  handle  the  situation? 

I  was  up  at  Sandusky.  Ohio,  immediately  after  the  cyclone  which 
swept  through  there  last  year.  The  chief  of  the  fire  department  had 
thought  more  or  less  of  the  subject  and  he  immediately  stationed  his 
apparatus  so  he  could  get  water  from  the  lake  into  about  half  of  the 
city  and  he  got  about  5,000  feet  of  hose  from  Toledo  and  then  he 
could  get  some  water  in  practically  all  parts  of  the  city.  Here  was  the 
emergency,  but  he  had  it  all  figured  out  beforehand,  and  the  com- 
panies went  where  they  were  supposed  to  go,  and  I  think  the  fire  loss 
was  practically  nil,  except  in  that  portion  swept  by  the  tornado. 

Some  of  our  larger  cities  are  giving  thought  to  what  might  re- 
sult in  case  an  earthquake  should  rupture  the  pipes  in  their  water 
systems.  The  water  department  and  the  fire  department  in  the  city 
of  Detroit  are  considering  this  question.  It  will  not  do  you  any  harm 
to  figure  such  things  out  beforehand,  particularly  because  ^mailer 
plants   are   more   unreliable   than   larger  ones,   although   their    service 


244 

record  is  very  good  on  the  whole.  Be  prepared  for  the  emergency 
so  you  can  do  the  best  you  can  with  the  equipment  you  have. 

I  believe  we  had  better  adjourn  now  and  go  out  and  have  a  few 
demonstrations.  We  have,  I  understand,  two  pieces  of  apparatus,  one 
of  the  Champaign  fire  department  and  one  of  the  Urbana  fire  depart- 
ment. We  shall  show  you  what  can  be  done  with  low  water  pressure 
and  high  water  pressure.  There  is  one  little  thing  we  are  going  to  try 
to  do.  I  don't  know  whether  we  shall  succeed,  but  I  have  been  want- 
ing to  do  it  for  ten  years,  but  never  have  had  the  opportunity.  It  is  in 
connection  with  the  pull-back  of  a  hose  stream.  Let's  imagine  we  have 
got  a  nice  stiff  stream  and  we  are  playing  right  out  in  the  open ;  if 
we  move  that  stream  to  within  three  or  four  feet  of  a  brick  wall  and 
play  against  the  wall,  are  we  going  to  get  more  or  less  pull-back,  or  is 
it  going  to  be  the  same?  I  will  bet  we  shall  get  no  more  pull-back, 
but  we  shall  see  whether  we  do  or  not.  This  question  has  caused  more 
amusement  and  argument  in  many  departments  than  any  other  single 
question  I  know  of.     I  think  we  are  all  ready  now.     (Applause.) 

Chairman  Enger:  Mr.  Goldsmith  will  be  willing  to  answer 
any  questions  before  you  go  out.  We  have  two  different  pieces  of 
fire  apparatus  which  you  will  have  an  opportunity  to  see  in  opera- 
tion.    We  will  now  adjourn  for  the  tests. 

DEMONSTRATION  TESTS  OF  PUMPING  ENGINES.  AND 

FRICTION  LOSS  IN  TWO  AND  ONE-HALF 

INCH  FIRE  HOSE 

Summarized  by  M.  L.  Enger,  Professor  of  Mechanics  and  Hydraulics, 
University  of  Illinois 

The  equipment  used  consisted  of  one  American  LaFrance  pumper, 
1,000  gallon  capacity,  belonging  to  the  Champaign  fire  department, 
and  one  Seagrave  pumper,  750  gallon  capacity,  belonging  to  the  Ur- 
bana fire  department.  Water  was  taken  from  a  cooling  pond  at  the 
locomotive  laboratory  of  the  University  of  Illinois.  Two  lines  of 
hose  were  laid,  each  200  feet  long,  and  pressure  gauges  were  placed 
fifty  and  150  feet  from  the  pump,  making  the  distance  between  the 
gauges  100  feet.  The  tests  were  under  the  supervision  of  Mr.  Gold- 
smith of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Lmderwriters,  Chicago. 

Tests    to    Show    friction    in    Hose— Several    experiments    were 
made  at  different  rates  of  flow.    The  results  are  tabulated  below. 
Length 

of  Hose  Rate  of  Discharge.  Loss  of  Head. 

100  feet  K><>  gallons  per  minute  5  pounds  per  square  inch 

100  feet  260  gallons  per  minute         10  pounds  per  square  inch 

100  feet  360  gallons  per  minute         25  pounds  per  square  inch 

The  tests  show  that  the  friction  loss  increases  very  rapidly  with  in- 
creasing rate  of   discharge. 

Tests  to  Show  Pull-back — There  has  been  a  controversy  among 
firemen   for   many  years  as  to   whether  the   pull-back   increases   when 


245 

a  fire  stream  is  turned  against  a  wall.  To  investigate  this  question 
the  nozzle  was  held  from  kicking  back  by  means  of  a  spring  balance 
and  a  rope  lashed  to  a  telegraph  pole.  The  hose  was  held  in  a  hori- 
zontal position  for  a  distance  of  about  fifty  feet.  When  a  one  and  one- 
quarter  inch  nozzle  discharged  "MO  gallons  per  minute  the  pull-back 
was  seventy-two  pounds  whether  the  stream  hit  the  pole  or  not.  When 
the  discharge  was  295  gallons  per  minute  the  pull-back  was  ninety- 
four  pounds  whether  stream  hit  pole  or  not.  This  test  proved  that 
the  pull-back  is  not  increased  by  having  the  stream  strike  a  wall. 

Tests  to  Show  the  Advantage  of  Using  Small  Nocclcs  in  Cer- 
tain Cases — When  the  amount  of  water  is  limited,  either  by  friction  in 
a  long  line  of  hose  or  by  small  pump  capacity,  small  nozzles  will 
throw  the  best  streams.  This  was  shown  by  using  one  and  one- 
eighth  inch  and  three- fourths  inch  nozzles  simultaneously  at  the  end 
of  200  foot  lines  of  hose.  Pressure  at  pumper  was  thirty-five  pound, 
per  square  inch  and  was  eighteen  and  twenty-seven  pounds  per  square 
inch,  respectively,  at  the  one  and  one-eighth  inch  and  three-quarter 
inch  nozzles.  The  discharges  were  160  and  ninety-one  gallons  per 
minute,  respectively.  The  three-quarter  inch  stream  had  much  the 
greater  height  and  distance. 

Tests  to  Show  Advantage  of  Siamesing — The  two  200  foot  lines 
of  two  and  one-half  inch  hose  used  in  previous  tests  were  siamesed 
into  one,  one  and  one-quarter  inch  nozzle.  The  discharge  was  410 
gallons  per  minute  with  a  nozzle  pressure  of  eighty  pounds  per  square 
inch.  If  there  had  been  only  one  line  of  hose  200  feet  long  the  dis- 
charge would  have  been  325  gallons  per  minute  and  the  pressure  at 
the  nozzle  fifty  pounds  per  square  inch.  By  means  of  siamese  con- 
nections the  volume  and  distance  of  a  fire  stream  can  be  increased 
and  this  is  particularly  true  in  the  case  of  hose  lines  of  400  feet  and 
longer. 


246 


REPRESENTATIVES  IN  ATTENDANCE 

(City  of  residence  in  Illinois  unless  otherwise  indicated) 

Adams,  Grover,  Danville,  fireman 

Adams,  Ward,  Tolono,  fireman 

Albert,  L.  0.,  Danville,  fireman 

Alsip,  R.  W.,  Champaign,  assistant  fire  chief 

Anderson,  Frank,  Champaign,  fire  department  captain 

Arens,  Otto  P.,  Chicago,  fire  prevention  inspector 

Armstrong,  P.  S.,  Springfield,  engineer,  Illinois  Public  Service  Co. 

Askey,  L.  J.,  Freeport,  city  building  inspector 

Ayers,  C.  S.,  Champaign,  fireman 

Boldebrick,  E.  M.,  Bensenville,  fire  chief 

Baley,  William,  Decatur,  fireman 

Barber,  O.  F.,  Illinois  Power  and  Light,  Decatur,  electrical  engineer 

Barden,  James,  Peoria,  fireman 

Becker,  D.  J.,  Marseilles,  electrician,  assistant  in  fire  department 

Bethel,  R.  V.,  Chicago,  Foamite-Childs  Corporation 

Biggs,  Wm.  P.,  Pullman  Car  and  Manufacturing  Co.,  Chicago,  safety  engineer 

Boehm,  W.  D.,  Sterling,  retired  fireman 

Boissenin,  Joseph,  Ottawa,  fire  chief 

Bradbeer,  Robert  H.,  Spring  Valley,  fire  chief 

Brannon,  R.,  Urbana,  member  University  of  Illinois  fire  department 

Bromley,  Ted,  Danville,  fireman 

Brooks,  Tom,  Clinton,  fire  chief 

Buck,  W.  H.,  Danville,  fireman 

Buffin,  A.  R.,  Freeport,  alderman  and  chairman  of  fire  committee 

Burres,  W.  T.,  Urbana,  mayor 

Burton,  Frank,  Danville,  fireman 

Burton,  W.  S.,  Tolono,  fire  chief 

Butzow,  Chas.  A.,  Sycamore,  fire  chief 

Cantwell,  F.  P.,  De  Pue,  fire  chief 

Chinske,  Stanley  L.,  Michigan  City,  Indiana,  safety  and  fire  prevention  work 

Coffey,  T.  B.,  Dixon,  fire  chief 

Colie,  Archie,  Elgin,  fireman 

Companion,  Charles,  Danville,  fireman 

Comrie,  Leslie  T.,  Danville,  fireman 

Conners,  C.  J.,  Peoria,  fire  chief 

Coons,  C.  E.,  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  supervisor  of  trains 

Corcoran,  J.  I.,  Lockport,  physical  director,  Lockport  Hospital 

Crump,  F.  E.,  Urbana,  member  University  of  Illinois  fire  department 

Cullen,  M.  D.,  Springfield,  fire  department  captain 

Dabels,  Frank,  Danville,  fireman 

Davis,  Frank  M.,  Danville,  fireman 

Deitch,   W.    H.,    3830   Michigan   avenue,   Chicago,   American-La    France   Fire 

Engine  Co.   (fire  apparatus) 
De  Long,  Julius,  Madison,  fireman 
Dettmering,  Henry  D.,  Matteson,  fire  chief 
Dial,  John  E.,  West  Frankfort,  fireman 

Dicke,  Elmer,  Downers  Grove,  secretary  of  fire  department 
Dickerson,  Tom,  Danville,  assistant  fire  chief 
Doan,  Grant,  Danville,  fireman 
Doherty,  M.  J.,  1804  Conway  building,  Chicago,  representative.  The  Seagrave 

Corporation   (Motor  Fire  Apparatus),  Columbus,  Ohio 
Donley,  Edward,  Champaign,  fireman 

Donnelly,  H.  S.,  Chicago,  Pyrene  Manufacturing  Co.    (fire  extinguishers) 
Drennan,  Robert  W..  Pawnee,  driver  for  fire  chief 
Duff,  Daniel  A.,  Dundee,  fireman 


247 

Duffey,  John,  Decatur,  fireman 

Eggers,  H.  F.,  Chester,  steam  and  electrical  engineer 
Ely,  John,  Champaign,  fire  chief 

Enger,  M.  L.,  Urbana,  professor  of  M.  and  S.  E.,  University  of  Illinois 
Farmer,  George,  Peoria,  operating  engineer,  Illinois  Power   and  Light   Cor- 
poration 
Farnam,  Leroy,  Pawnee,  member  of  town  board  and  chairman  of  committee 

for  purchase  of  new  fire  equipment 
Faverty,  L.  A.,  Chester,  garage  man 

Fay,  Thomas,  Urbana,  fire  chief,  University  of  Illinois  department 
Feller,  Harry  H.,  Madison,  fireman 

Felt,  Fred,  Sr.,  Chicago  Heights,  commissioner  of  public  health  and  safety 
Fife,  W.  T.,  West  Frankfort,  assistant  fire  chief 
Fleming,    J.    B.,    Pittsburgh,    Pennsylvania,    western    representative,    Mine 

Safety  Appliances  Co.  (gas  masks) 
Flynn,  J.  A.,  Chicago,  Potter  Manufacturing  Co.    (straight  slide  tubular  fire 

escapes) 
Frederick,  E.,  Rankin,  fireman 
Gamber,  John  G.,  Springfield,  state  fire  marshal 
Gibson,  J.  R.,  Champaign,  fireman 
Godsebois,  Paul,  East  Moline,  fire  chief 
Goldsmith,   Clarence,   Chicago,   assistant   chief  engineer,    National   Board   of 

Fire  Underwriters,  209  West  Jackson  boulevard 
Gorrey,  M.  E.,  Danville,  fireman 
Green,  C.  E.,  Springfield,  assistant  fire  chief 
Greenawalt,  Herman,  Danville,  fireman 
Gregory,  H.  P.,  Moweaqua,  fire  chief 
Gwinn,  Howard,  1713  Moulton,  Mattoon,  fireman 
Gwinnup,  W.  M.,  Delavan,  fire  chief 
Haderlein,  Fred  P.,  Carlyle,  secretary,  local  fire  department;   vica-president, 

state  association 
Hall,  Harry  E.,  Clinton,  fireman 
Hammerle,  Ed.,  Walnut,  fire  chief 
Harmeling,  G.  H.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  "Fire  Protection"' — a  magazine  published 

by  National  Underwriters  Corporation 
Harrier,  Clyde,  Danville,  fireman 
Haskell,  Clarence,  Mattoon,  fireman 
Hatfield,  Howard,  Danville,  fireman 

Haughton,  R.  C,  Chicago,  salesman,  Pyrene  Manufacturing  Co.    (fire  extin- 
guishers) 
Hawk,  John  Q.,  Moline,  fire  chief 
Hawkins,  J.  F.,  Champaign,  fireman 
Hays,   H.   B.,  Jacksonville,   superintendent   of   operation,   Illinois   Power  and 

Light  Corporation 
Hays,  J.  B.,  Urbana,  assistant  fire  chief 
Helmer,  J.  P.,  De  Pue,  fireman 
Henryson,  E.  F.,  Elgin,  fireman 
Hibbard,  F.   W.,   Chicago,   fire   inspector,    Illinois   Central  Railroad,    Seventh 

Floor,  Dowie  building 
Holman,  Ralph,  Danville,  fireman 
Hoover,  W.  D.,  Gibson  City,  city  councilman 
Houren,  G.  M.,  Winnetka,  fire  chief 
Howard,  J.  K.,  Chicago,  engineer,  American-LaFrance  Fire  Engine  Co.    (fire 

apparatus) 
Huckstadt,  John,  Danville,  fireman 
Huffman,  E.  T.,  Crystal  Lake,  fire  chief 
Hunt,  Samuel  C,  Jacksonville,  fire  chief 
Hunter,   Harold   F.,   Chicago,  engineer,  Chicago  Board   of   Underwriters,   175 

West  Jackson  boulevard. 
Huntington,  J.  W.,  Decatur,  fire  insurance 
Hurd,   Geo.    R.,    8120   Ellis   avenue,    Chicago,   superintendent    fire    protection, 

Illinois  Central  Railroad 


248 

Jacobs,  Dave,  Danville,  fireman 

Jaeckel,  Julius  F.,  Pekin,  fire  chief 

James,  T.  E.,  Litchfield,  block  manufacturing 

Jarden,  G.,  Urbana,  fireman 

Johnson,  Andes  W.,  422  North  Mill  street,  Pontiac,  fireman 

Johnson,  Edward  L.,  Evanston,  assistant  fire  marshal 

Jones,  Charles  O.,  Rantoul,  assistant  fire  chief 

Jones,  Kendall,  Gilman,  fireman 

Jones,  R.  D.,  Gilman,  fireman 

Joseph,  T.,  Mattoon,  fireman 

Knight,  A.  R.,  Urbana,  assistant  professor  of  electrical  engineering,  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois 

Krabbe,  Charles,  Champaign,  fireman 

Kraff,  Peter,  Princeton,  city  commissioner 

Krause,  Geo.  W.,  Crystal  Lake,  assistant  fire  chief 

Kruse,  Hobart,  Champaign,  fireman 

Kuehuen,  Harry  R.,  116  West  Henry  street,  Staunton,  second  assistant  fire 
chief 

Lamb,  Loren,  Princeton,  fire  chief 

Landult,  Fred,  Alhambra,  mayor 

Lange,  Fred,  Champaign,  fireman 

Lange,  W.  F.,  Champaign,  fireman 

Lawless,  R.  M.,  Chicago,  Ri-Lateral  Fire  Hose  Co.    (salesman) 

Leitschuh,  O.,  Litchfield,  fire  chief 

Lennert,  A.  E.,  Mt.  Carmel,  fire  chief 

Link,  John,  Blue  Island,  fire  chief 

Lohmann,  Herman  J.,  Aurora,  fire  chief 

Longer,  William,  Danville,  fireman 

Lowry,  S.  T.,  Decatur,  assistant  fire  chief 

Lueck,  Wm.  M.,  Dundee,  fireman 

Lundstrom,  R.  A.,  Pekin,  fire  marshal  of  Corn  Products  Refining  Co. 

McClurg,  D.  L.,  Indianapolis,  Indiana,  Grain  Dealers'  Mutual  Fire  Insurance 
Co. 

McNeill,  Pete,  Murphysboro,  chauffeur 

Maddex,  T.  E.,  Springfield,  electrical  engineer,  Central  Illinois  Public  Ser- 
vice Co. 

Mann,  F.  L.,  Danville,  fireman 

Martin,  C.  C,  Urbana,  fire  chief 

Martin,  Sug,  Urbana,  mascot  of  fire  department 

Matson,  R.  C,  Chicago,  Underwriters'  Laboratories,  207  East  Ohio  street 

Mattson,  Charles  J.,  Moline,  deputy  state  fire  marshal 

Maurer,  E.  D.,  Galesburg,  operating  engineer,  Illinois  Power  and  Light  Cor- 
poration 

Metzelaars,  P.  H.,  Mattoon,  fireman 

Miller,  M.  C,  Danville,  fire  department  captain 

Morrow,  W.  J.,  Clinton,  assistant  fire  chief 

Muirhead,  David,  Danville,  fireman 

Muirhead,  Robert,  Danville,  fireman 

Murphy,  G.  W.,  Champaign,  fireman 

Naris,  B.,  Urbana,  fireman 

Neal,  William,  Rantoul,  fire  chief 

Nelson,  Raymond  T.,  Chicago,  engineer,  Western  Actuarial  Bureau 

Newton,  T.  G.,  Litchfield,  electrician 

Nicol,  Connel  L.,  Sterling,  fire  chief 

Nolan,  E.  T.,  Freeport,  fire  chief 

Oueal,  Harly,  Rankin,  fire  chief 

O'Neill  William  J.,  Jr.,  Lake  Forest,  fire  chief 

Ott,  Albert,  Danville,  fireman 

Palmer,  C.  E.,  Urbana,  assistant  professor  of  architectural  engineering,  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois 

Panknin,  F.  J.,  Berkeley,  fire  chief 

Paris,  E.,  Urbana,  fireman 


240 

Paris,  T.,  Urbana,  fireman 

Perkins,  C.  N.,  Danville,  fireman 

Pesavento,  Andrew,  Joliet,  fire  department  lieutenant 

Philip,  M.  S.,  Chicago  Heights,  fire  chief 

Phillimore,  George  W.,  Marseilles,  fire  chief 

Phillips,  H.  A.,  3830  South  Michigan,  Chicago,  engineer  for  American-La- 
France  Fire  Engine  Co.   (fire  apparatus) 

Pierce,  Dana,  Chicago,  president  of  Underwriters'  Laboratories 

Pitman,  C.  Urbana,  fireman 

Plant,  John,  4833  N.  Lawndale  avenue,  Chicago,  chief  engineer,  fire  preven- 
tion bureau  of  Chicago 

Piatt,  Edward,  Decatur,  fire  chief 

Piatt,  Ben  E.,  Decatur,  fireman 

Poff,  A.  0.,  Gibson  City,  deputy  state  fire  marshal 

Provine,  L.  H.,  Urbana,  professor  of  architectural  engineering.  University 
of  Illinois 

Pullman,  Henry,  LaGrange,  police  lieutenant 

Putman,  George,  Decatur,  fireman 

Raymond,  Fred  A.,  Newton  Upper  Falls,  Massachusetts,  research  and  con- 
sulting engineer  for  Gamewell  Co.    (fire  alarm   devices) 

Reddick,  Ed.  R.,  Champaign,  fireman 

Regensburger,  R.  W.,  8210  South  Justine  street,  Chicago,  mechanical  engineer 

Reiche,  Otto  H.,  Naperville,  fire  chief 

Richards,  Benjamin,  Chicago,  manager,  Underwriters'  Service  association 

Ridgway,  Frank,  Freeport,  fire  extinguisher  salesman 

Rieker,  W.  F.,  Danville,  assistant  fire  chief 

Rogers,  Harry  K.,  Chicago,  fire  prevention  engineer,  Western  Actuarial 
Bureau 

Ruch,  G.  W.,  Springfield,  traveling  inspector  of  motive  power,  Illinois  Trac- 
tion System 

Ruddy,  Thomas,  Joliet,  assistant  fire  chief 

Ruey,  George,  Canton,  fire  chief 

Ruhrdanz,  A.  J.,  Danville,  fireman 

Safko,  Anthony,  Staunton,  fire  chief 

Sawyer,  Wayne,  Gibson  City,  fire  chief 

Schalk,  August,  116  West  White,  Champaign,  fireman 

Scherer,  Fred,  Ottawa,  city  commissioner 

Schertz,  P.,  Gibson  City,  mayor 

Schmaedeke,  Ed.,  Matteson,  volunteer  fireman 

Seyman,  L.  J.,  Danville,  former  fire  equipment  salesman 

Shafer,  M.  J.,  Room  1804  Conway  building,  Chicago,  Seagrave  Co.  (fire  ap- 
paratus) 

Sheets,  Claud,  Danville,  fireman 

Shue,  B.  E.,  Champaign,  representative  of  Illinois  Power  and  Light  Co. 

Simmons,  Theodore  E.,  Danville,  fireman 

Sloan,  Roscoe  S.,  Rankin,  fireman 

Smith,  Pearl,  Madison,  president,  Illinois  Firemen's  association 

Spiering,  Albert,  Danville,  fireman 

Starry,  D.  L.,  Danville,  fireman,  captain  No.  4 

Storm,  Merle,  Mattoon,  fireman 

Stubs,  William,  Champaign,  fireman 

Tarro,  Joseph,  Spring  Valley,  fireman 

Tesnow,  Henry  C,  Evanston,  fire  department   lieutenant 

Tousley,  V.  H.,  Room  606,  City  Hall,  Chicago,  chief  electrical  inspector,  de- 
partment of  gas  and  electricity,  Chicago 

Underwood,  T.  J.,  Pawnee,  fire  chief 

Upham,  Charles  S.,  Pontiac,  fire  chief 

Van  Alstyne,  P.  J.,  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  500  Cbmpton  building,  electrical 
engineer 

Waterman.  A.  T.,  501  Gloyd  building,  Kansas  City,  Missouri,  fire  drill  in- 
structor 

Weaver,  J.  C,  Mattoon,  fire  chief 


250 

Welton,  H.  H.,  Chester,  garage  man 

Whalen,  J.  J.,  East  St.  Louis,  fire  chief 

White,  Fred  A.,  Danville,  fire  department  captain 

White,  Leo,  Danville,  fire  department  captain 

Wilcockson,  G.  W.,  Pawnee,  mayor 

Wills,  F.  M.,  South  Elgin,  mayor 

Wolf.  L.  L.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  paint  manufacturer,  instructor  and  drillmaster 

.jyiili  Cincinnati  fire  department 
Wyatt,  Ray,  Danville,  fireman 
Zibble,  Walter  H.,  Wilmette,  fire  chief 


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